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STUDENT DIGITAL NEWSLETTER ALAGAPPA INSTITUTIONS |
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Deborah W. Wilbur, MD
Verify that information on technician log matches information on evidence log and make any required corrections to technician log symptoms of gastritis in babies allopurinol 300 mg with amex. As necessary chronic superficial gastritis definition discount allopurinol 300mg online, travel to other sites and repeat steps 4-10 to conduct all deployment verifications as scheduled for the day chronic atrophic gastritis definition cheap 300 mg allopurinol fast delivery. If there is a mismatch between this paperwork gastritis diet bland generic 300mg allopurinol with mastercard, inform technician so they can make corrections gastritis symptoms dizziness discount 300mg allopurinol fast delivery. As directed by Admin gastritis and coffee generic 300 mg allopurinol mastercard, make any final corrections to paperwork to ensure match among all documents. The printed test shot and screen shots serves as an additional control on deployment verification accuracy. Astea tickets coded as "Violation Asset Retrieval" serve as a control to verify that all deployment verifications were completed as scheduled. Our only comment is that requiring signoffs on document reviews, not just on document completions, would provide additional assurance that they are performed consistently. Currently, trained technicians visit each enforcement location on a daily basis to perform maintenance, deployment and battery changing activities. The technician records the daily field service activity using various logs and checklists. Inquiries, walkthroughs and ride-alongs were our only means of understanding the flow. Old Deployment Log is closed and signed by the technician Comments the checklist contains various tests to verify the equipment settings and calibrations are correct. The technician uses information captured during the completion of the checklist to complete the new deployment log and close the old deployment log. It is then submitted to the processing unit and the closed deployment log is uploaded into the system, and the entire packet is retained according to department guidelines. This is likely a combination of lighter traffic and increased driver caution as well as the impact of weather conditions on unit performance and images. We later found that a number of cameras were taken offline, some for more than 12 months, for upgrading to new technology. We shared the "in-house" flowchart with the Program Manager, who indicated that certain steps needed to be expanded. After several discussions and revisions, we were unable to produce a valid flowchart, i. The steps that were problematic were related to the flow of information through the CiteNet platform. While the vendor, Xerox, may have been able to assist or even provide a current process flowchart, this information had clearly not been previously provided. Understanding data flow helps management identify opportunities for improving data collection and analysis, increasing availability and ensuring data use. Erroneous issuance could result from approving unclear images, from approving events for which data is incorrect, or from not processing events because data is missing or incomplete. For 108, we were able to verify make/model, license number and other applicable criteria (including green bar and deployment log for speed cameras). For one, the vehicle make recorded was different from what is visible in the image. Subsequent review with the Processor Supervisor confirmed that 7 of the 120 (or 6%) events that should be rejected under current business rules. Of the total 240 citations, we disagreed with 5% of the events accepted: 9 with vehicle make/model not visible 1 with vehicle make different from image 1 with unclear state and vehicle make We were confident that the 5% "error" rate was representative of the population. To perform this test, we designed a sample based on camera type, vendor and the safety ranking of the location. From that point forward, the rate increased steadily, reaching nearly 100% in May 2015. A disproportionate number of events captured at this location were emergency vehicles. If no log is matched within a specified timeframe, the event is automatically rejected by the system. Our initial hypothesis was that this was the cause for the low issuance rates at these locations. Further investigation, however, revealed a significant number of image-related rejections, such as for illegible license plates and dark environments. For the seven Sensys speed camera locations selected, including one at a high-accident site, we were unable to obtain counts for recorded or enforceable events from CiteNet. Using the same location sample, we charted the number of citations issued over the period January 2013 to May 2015 (January 2014 to May 2015 for Sensys cameras). The current level has been sustained over a 2-year period, so diminished returns were likely due to increased driver awareness. With the exception of Aug-Sep 2013 (when the number of recorded events dropped more than 35%), issuance has been consistent. For reasons unknown, the unit at this location was inoperable for three months in 2013. Since then, performance has not been consistent; but this may have been due to seasonal effects as well as construction. The camera began experiencing diminishing returns in September 2014, however, and was taken offline for a month. The s/b camera was brought back up in November 2014 and quickly ramped up to its previous issuance rate. After this camera was brought back up in February 2015, issuance was higher than it had been previously. There were valid deployment logs, but no events loaded to CiteWeb in February-March 2014. At the C Street location, there were a number of subsequent months in which events were loaded into CiteWeb but none resulted in citations. The expected pattern for speed cameras is high output for the few months of deployment followed by a tapering off. After determining that we would not be able to perform substantive testing, the decision was made to analyze summary rejection statistics. We noted redundancies and ambiguity in reject codes used in initial and second reviews. In response to our inquiry, the Program Manager indicated this problem was being investigated. Codes should be unique and descriptive enough to communicate the reason an event was rejected. Users (processors) should not have direct access to the data table containing reject codes. Requests for the creation of new reject codes should be documented and reviewed by management. Upon review of the deployment packets and database reports, we could not find evidence of management review or determine the status of corrective actions. Near the close of our fieldwork we were informed by management of their plan to implement a support ticketing system (Remedy) to measure the performance of technicians and to track the status of corrective and preventive maintenance actions. We were also made aware that they are establishing an inventory management system. A complete inventory was taken after we completed fieldwork, and we were provided a copy of the equipment listing as we were drafting this report. The current status of 137 Sensys units (chassis/guts and droplet sub-rack) was reported as follows: Street! Although management has numerous meetings, no evidence was available of decisions, follow up items, or recommendations related to the maintenance function. The department should establish, implement and maintain procedures to monitor and measure key characteristics of its maintenance operations. If documented, this would provide information necessary to monitor performance, adherence to department targets and achievement of objectives. The procedure for taking Sensys and Redflex units out of service did not include downloading data that had not yet been transmitted to CiteNet. It is not known at this point how many events may have been lost as a result of this oversight. Our citation issuance testing suggests that, prior to the change in business rules, 5% or more may have had problems related to vehicle make and model. We were unable to perform tests indicating how many violations may have been rejected in error during the period. Violation processing is a subjective activity and requires good professional judgment. It is important to note that the in-house model was not initiated until November 2013 and that the ramp-up for a processor to become proficient is two months. Our analysis concluded that the issuance at the Benning Road location was impacted by a disproportionate number of emergency-vehicle rejects and that the other locations with low issuances had high incidences of image-related rejects. What is important to note is that this type of analysis could not be performed on Sensys cameras because we could not obtain counts for the events recorded and events enforceable. Operating the program efficiently and effectively is key to maintaining the integrity of the program. Currently, there is a need for enhanced risk management and tighter internal controls. This should cover all program areas, including vendor management, processing operations and equipment operations and maintenance. The result will be improved performance, which should in turn lead to increased public trust. The findings in this report illustrate material weaknesses in the manner in which the Program activities were being performed. These material weaknesses relate mainly to a lack of adequate policies and procedures, inadequate contractual requirements and inadequate performance monitoring. Weak internal controls are not an indicator that outcomes are incorrect, but strong internal controls are an indicator that processes are standardized and monitored to reduce the opportunities for error. We did not have at our disposal activity-based cost data that would allow us to completely and accurately identify which costs could be avoided by outsourcing various program areas and compare them to the costs of in-house operations. The actual cost differs from this amount due to variations in the number of deployed units and to penalties for failure to keep units operational. If the cost is not charged back to the Unit, the annual savings is approximately $300, 000. The prices of Sensys cameras, as well as annual depreciation expenses (based on 5-year useful life) are presented below. If the prices of AutoPatrol cameras does not differ significantly from these prices, there should be no significant difference in the annual depreciation expense. Based on the available data, it would appear that the in-house model results in a significant cost savings. However, we know that there are additional costs, including transfer costs, which have not been included. It would be a worthwhile effort to derive cost estimates under various scenarios for outsourcing and request comparative cost information from prospective vendors. This requires ensuring adequate performance by employees, contractors and vendors and evaluating the status, problems and successes of the program through a management information system with appropriate reporting capabilities. It references positions and procedures that are either outdated or never applied to these operations. During our audit, we noted the lack of adequate documentation related to all aspects of the Program. Although there are a number of checklists, forms and presentations, we did not discover consolidated policies, procedures or guidance for accomplishing all critical Program tasks:! Deployment strategies: There is no documented strategy for the selection of camera locations. After walking through the site survey process with the Quality Assurance Manager, we found it to be robust. Field services: Clearly documented policies and procedures do not only to provide guidance for accomplishing tasks. They provide a means of communicating procedures to stakeholders and standards against which to measure employee and contractor performance. Violation processing: There is a PowerPoint presentation deck, which is commonly referred to as "business rules. However, the applicability of this date to the content is questionable, as the table of contents on the reverse of the cover references sections that are not in the document. Information systems: A good information system utilizes and integrates various types of information from various sources and makes actionable information available to management. Management must have a clear understanding of all current processes that are critical to the Program, including those performed by vendor software. Our inquiries shed light on a programming error in the Xerox software that had resulted in the Processor Supervisor performing certain tasks that should have been unnecessary. Upon inquiry, we were informed that this is a common practice, as adequate shared drive space has not been provided. If critical documents are stored on hard drives that are not backed up, they may not be recoverable in the event of a hardware failure. It recommends the following: "Management clearly documents internal control and all transactions and other significant events in a manner that allows the documentation to be readily available for examination. The documentation may appear in management directives, administrative policies, or operating manuals, in either paper or electronic form. We recommend that written procedures are developed or, if applicable, updated for all activities related to the program, including monitoring vendors. Procedures should include well-designed internal controls to safeguard assets, ensure the reliability and integrity of data, ensure compliance with laws and regulations, promote efficient and effective operations and accomplish program goals and objectives. For example, there may be risk of contract incentives focusing on volume of violations rather than efficiency and effectiveness. The first step in mitigating operational and transaction risks related to outsourcing is understanding what the process flow for a particular activity looks like.
Certain changes in stream flow which would result from increasing precipitation or from decreasing evap otranspiration may be estimated chronic gastritis sydney classification order allopurinol 300 mg with visa. It increasingly is possible to predict the modification in stream flow resulting from changes in precipitation and tem perature gastritis types buy 300 mg allopurinol free shipping. After a soil is saturated a small increase in rainfall may cause a proportionately larger increase in runoff gastritis gerd symptoms cheap allopurinol 300 mg fast delivery. There is less knowledge about the likely effects of such changes on the movement of silt downstream gastritis diet èíöåñò order 300mg allopurinol free shipping, or about the relation of rainfall intensity to rates of gully cutting in and regions such as the Upper Rio Grande basin gastritis fatigue discount allopurinol 300mg free shipping. Lack of full understanding of the consequences has never been a reason for man to forbear modifying a part of his environment diet of gastritis patient order allopurinol 300 mg mastercard. He does not re- frain from ploughing a Carolina field because he is ignorant of the full ef fects upon soil biota or upon runoff. He has not held up the construction of storage dams in Kansas because of doubt as to the readjustments in chan nel cross section and gradient which will take place downstream when the flow is regularized. Moreover, in seek ing to alter the landscape in one way he may unwittingly cause damages to others. There never is a time in the present state of scientific knowledge about air, soil, water, plants, and ani mals when these changes can be rec ognized in all their complexity. To defer action until all the consequences are tallied up would be to halt all new resource management. Yet, there have been times when the public decision to go ahead in ignorance has led to bitter regrets, as when highly erosive soils have been ploughed and new cy cles of gully cutting have been trig gered; or as when channel works have caused heavy silting and dislocation of downstream drainage systems. Arriving at such judg ments requires not only recognition of what is known and not known about the atmospheric, hydrologic, and bio logical systems affected, but assess ment of how a change in one or all of them will affect human life and of how one kind of change compares with another. Weather and climate modification is distinct from the more conventional tools of environmental change in sev eral respects. It promises to ordinarily affect areas distant from those where modification is tried: more than any other readily available tool it may ex tend its effects across the frontiers of countries, states, and nations. Its po tentials for provoking local and inter national conflict therefore are great. For these reasons there is greater likelihood that man at the out set will see the gravity as well as the exciting opportunity of modification measures and that conscious attempts will be made to weigh their future consequences for society at the local, national, and international levels. However, the techniques so far devel83 oped are cheap, readily moved from place to place, low in capital invest ment, and often free from the hazard of irreversible shifts in the atmos phere. These reasons tend to stimulate small-size operations widely dispersed in time and place, and to offset the caution that otherwise might apply. Not only is there uncertainty about how much the atmospheric cir culation can be altered and what this would mean for the movement and quality of water, plants, and animals, but the consquences for human pro duction and communication are sub ject to similar doubt. This is one of the factors account ing for the casual attention which has been given to the social consequences of weather and climate modification since publication of the report of the Advisory Committee on Weather Con trol in 1957. An appended paper pointed out the need for more syste matic examination of the human ef fects of modification. Doubt as to the possibility of changing the weather led scientists to ignore the challenge, and they were supported in this by the silence of the Advisory Committee on Weather Control as to the need, by the scepti cism of many atmospheric scientists, by the debate in the academic com munity over the statistical methods used in judging cloud-seeding experi ments, and by the caution of Federal agencies in encouraging new research. There was no agency specifically charged to look into the human ef fects, and within the National Science Foundation the responsibility for weather modification research was lodged in the Section on Atmospheric Sciences. The principal lesson to be drawn from this experience is that where un certainty is large, as it continues to be with weather and climate modifica tion, the basic social implications will tend to remain unexplored unless ex plicit and sustained effort is made to stir up and support the essential re search. Otherwise, the human prob lems are ignored until they burst into prominence on the heels of an im provement in technique. Where uncertainty is high there is much in favor of a public strategy which promotes diversification of ef forts rather than dependence upon one line of action or research. Not only would this call for pursuit of studies on a variety of physical pro cesses, but it would suggest that the needs for and damages from theoreti cally possible modification would be examined in advance of perfection of techniques. In promoting a strategy of diversification it is important, how ever, to avoid spreading the research so thinly that no one project is re warding. Allocation of funds among different aspects of modification pre sumes a rough judgment of what kinds of changes would be desirable in im proving the quality of human life. A possible modification, such as pre cipitation induction or lightning sup pression, can be assumed and then an effort made to estimate what the con sequences would be in the society. Where a modification is tried, as in seeding above a hydroelectric plant, the effects upon power production downstream and in the generating network may be traced. A second approach is to ask at what points the social system would be sensitive to a change in weather conditions, and from this to estimate what would be the more de sirable and undesirable changes which might be foreseen without regard to whether or not they currently are practicable. Under the first approach, the atten tion is directed toward discerning the likely impacts of modification which promise early achievement. Under the second, the emphasis is on types of modification which should be sought or avoided. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive, and they can helpfully supplement each other. Concern with growing world population needs heightens the interest in gains from the weather. Doubt as to human im plications as illustrated by the diffi culty of assessing results of nuclear experiments, has raised new cautions concerning any novel or large-scale interference with our environment. Great prudence is therefore warranted in practicing weather modification, and increased support is desirable to explore its side effects, as well as its ability to achieve the desired results. Deep in human experience is a sense of excitement and beauty in coping with the extremes of wind and rain and heat. To be sure, their enjoyment does not always offset the discomfort and suffering that lead men to com monly adjust their clothing, dwellings, transport and other practices to curb the effects of weather. Yet in the driv ing power of a winter blizzard or the sudden flash of summer lightning there are dramatic reminders of the elemental forces with which the hu man race constantly is striving to find its place. No presently conceivable program of weather or climate modi86 fication could eliminate these ex tremes. A beginning at changing storm or lightning nevertheless raises the question of how far the human spirit is enriched by the uncertainty and wonder and exhilaration that come with the restless, violent movements of the atmosphere. Any effort to as sess the social consequences of weather and climate modification must give weight to the esthetic and spirit ual as well as purely material rewards. Certain elec tric power utilities, airlines, and fruit growers have invested funds in re search and operations directed at practical modifications. A public util ity on the Pacific Coast concluded that in the drainage area of one of its res ervoirs an increase of less than two percent in annual precipitation would clearly justify cloud seeding and that an increase of ten percent for a large watershed might be worth $200, 000. An airline has estimated that the im mediate benefits in reduction of oper- ating expenses from fog dispersal in an intermountain area were at least five times the seeding costs. Ob viously, if a farmer thinks he may in crease his per acre wheat yield from seven to eight bushels by rainfall in duction or hail suppression at a cost of a few cents an acre he will be strongly inclined to take the risk of the expenditure even though the resuits are in doubt. It has been calcu lated that the estimated mean annual losses of $250, 000, 000 from hurricanes might be reduced by as much as one third if only modest reductions in storm intensity or slight changes in storm paths could be achieved. Op portunities for direct, beneficial ef fects in the economy are immense in sofar as genuine modification can be managed with confidence. In the sphere of human activities, the potential effects of modification on the quantity, timing, and geo graphic distribution of production and transportation are particularly strik ing. But in evaluating the social effects of weather modification it is not enough to trace them through the tech nological aspects of production activi ties. Behavorial responses and their relation to the impact on social organ ization and process must also be iden tified. Because weather modification involves costs and may preclude al ternatives, its possible results must be compared with achievements ob tainable through alternative ways of dealing with the vagaries and averages of weather phenomena. Man adjusts his activities to weather in countless ways and constantly is devising new ones. The evaluation of fog dissipa tion requires not only the measure ment of benefits and costs at the air port and in airline operations, but the assessment of the benefits and costs from installing equipment which could land aircraft notwithstanding fog or from re-routing traffic on the ground and in the air. Sometimes they may comple ment each other, but in many instances an accurate forecast with sufficient advance warning, if accompanied by other measures, would reduce or even eliminate the gains from altering a weather extreme. Thus, as much as 15-20 percent of flood losses may be eliminated in certain areas, if there is sufficient notice, without changing the character of the flood or of the pre87 cipitation producing it. Severe crop losses from drought may be reduced by alternate cropping if the drought can be predicted sufficiently far in advance. Perhaps no industry is more carefully prepared to take advantage of a forecast of icy or freezing weather than is the public utility industry which can move promptly to cope with weather emergencies. Even in the absence of significant forecasting improvements, there are many other means of cutting down dislocations caused by weather. In areas where drought occasionally brings acute crop losses, the social impacts may be curbed by readjust ment in cropping patterns, by breed ing or selecting drought resistant vari eties of plants, by supplementing the water supply, by insurance schemes, and by a variety of other actions, some of which depend upon further scien tific research for their perfection. A similar range of solutions applies to dislocations caused by hail, excessive rain, fog, and lightning. To be realistic, measurement of the benefits and cost of modification, fore88 casting, or any of the other alternatives must take into account the likelihood that if certain of them are pursued consistently, the structure of the econ omy will change so that it becomes less vulnerable to dislocation by weather. In drought areas a reor ganization of farming practices might lead to agriculture which would be less vulnerable to the recurring dry periods. Or, a continuing program of cloud seeding, if practicable, might raise the mean rainfall sufficiently to encourage a major revision in type of farming. Without any conscious modification of weather, the sensitivity of human activity to weather may be reduced, as when air conditioning or insulation of utility lines renders an area less susceptible to extremes of tempera ture. During 1929-1962, the yield of corn in the Corn Belt increased in sev eral steps related to the technology of seed, cultivation, and fertilization, but during the same period the vari ation in yields due to weather ap peared to decrease. In these and other ways estimates of direct im- pacts of weather modification must be corrected for longer-term structural adjustments. Research relating to the social im pact of weather on human affairs would prove fruitful even if no form of weather or climate modification were ever to be achieved. Deepened understanding of geographic relation ships among weather characteristics and the economic system would be bound to aid in intelligent decisions by both resource users and public agencies in agriculture, transport, manufacturing, and other sectors of the economy. The kind of refined knowledge about crops and rainfall, or air transport and fog, or forest growth and lightning which would be essential to careful estimates of social impacts of weather modification would be required for estimates of the sen sitivity of the economy to weather, or for improvement in efficiency of those activities by other means. One fundamental question deserv ing scientific attention is the degree to which climate already has been altered or may be altered in the future inadvertently by the hand of man. To the extent that either rural or urban climates have been so modified, the type and distribution of human ac- tivity may be expected to reflect some readjustments that now are taken for granted. Urban climates have under gone measureable change in tempera ture and air quality. While few modern societies are so delicately ad justed to rain or its invocation as are certain of the organizations and social controls of Pueblo culture in the Southwestern United States, all of them involve many adaptations. Whether the relations of weather to human activity are isolated over a few days or many years, they ob viously are different from one sector of society to another. If it is assumed that there is any effect upon processes elsewhere, the differ ential results become even more marked. Were cloud seeding to have a "rain shadow" of lowered precipita tion or were hail suppression to re duce rainfall to the leeward, the com plications would multiply. If it were to be shown that cirrus cloud forma tion encourages smog conditions, then the health and heat budget of a metro89 politan area might be affected by air line operations upwind. A map show ing the area where weather elements are altered presents only a part of the picture; it must delimit the extent of effects felt in nearby towns or in dis tant markets. Just as many city dwellers in the path of a hurricane are unable to act rationally on the warning of high winds, so people in an area of weather modification may for a variety of reasons fail to take advantage of a changed condition. On the other hand, a farmer may act as though the weather is being modified even when scientific verification is lacking. In either case, the estimate of the individually and socially ra tional solution does not turn out to describe what people in fact do. A workable public policy is based on prediction of what they will decide in practical situations. The uneasy sus picion of a nation that it is suffering from cloud seeding to the windward is a political reality that must be faced seriously, whether or not harmful ef fects are known to occur. It may well be that individuals will be unable to take advantage of the poten tial benefits of weather and climate modification unless legal and institu tional changes are put into effect. In deed, they will arise whenever there is any slight ground to think it may be practicable. Substantial groups in the nation already believe cloud seeding produces rain and perhaps even rainshadow; their responses to private seeding operations or government re search programs are based on these beliefs and range from enthusiasm to hostility. These perceived conflicts are real in the minds of the people involved, and they cannot be ignored because they lack scientific validation. This is par ticularly true of the conflicts believed to extend across political boundaries. Research on the techniques of weather modification is likely to en counter conflict with other research programs unless there is clear agree ment as to the time and place of each field experiment. Otherwise, opera tions in the area may cause contam ination and thus run the risk of in validating the observations elsewhere. A proliferation of weather modi fication operations could make it im possible to carry out carefully con trolled experiments. Were farmers in the Great Plains to become generally convinced that cloud seeding could increase rainfall at critical periods or could suppress hail, their activities soon would cover the area so thoroughly that without regulation it would be difficult to run experiments to find out whether or not the opera tions were in fact effective. A conflict arises where one group stands to benefit from weather modi- fication and another to lose. As al ready noted, this may apply both within a single area and between two areas. There is the possibility of con flicts between groups seeking to mod ify weather for different purposes or for the benefit of different areas. Rather than there being unintended effects upon other groups from one seeding operation, there can be direct conflict over the use of a site or atmospheric condition. Public policy should recognize the probability that all four types of con flict may arise, and should seek to reconcile each of them equitably.
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Wigton Peggy Wilczak Dean & Shirley Williams Elizabeth & Cecil Williams Willie & Marva Williams Dr. Wydra Jack & Patricia Wykoff Geoffrey Yager & Jayne TreinenYager Patricia & David Yarbrough Catherine Yeotis Marilyn C. College Insider explains every step along the way, including how to qualify for financial aid and figure out what colleges or universities are right for you. The site provides downloadable guides to organize the application process, and sections are customized for high school juniors, seniors, their parents and school counselors. While a new generation of inspiring school facilities has been built in suburban areas, many children in central city and rural areas have been left behind in outdated and often run-down structures. Efforts by policymakers and the courts to address this issue have been handicapped by the lack of reliable measures of school facility quality. Past efforts have relied on subjective survey responses or small-sample engineering evaluations, neither of which offers much guidance on the cost of needed improvements. We have applied our procedures to all Michigan school districts, but since they utilize data that are available for school districts nationwide, the methods can be readread more Arsen, D. Taj Mahals or decaying shacks: Patterns in local school capital stock and unmet capital need. Michigan is one of the few states in which school facilities are funded entirely by local property taxes. Variations in property wealth across districts create inequalities in their ability to pay for facilities. Our research quantified large and systematic variations in school facilities across local communities that are highly correlated with local property wealth. The opportunity to work with modern technology is ever more important to prepare students for emerging high-skill jobs. Today, students attending public schools in affluent communities use computer-controlled machine tools, computer graphic art equipment, television studios and more. If not for this higher tax effort, the quality of urban school facilities would lag even further behind suburban districts. Building quality affects student and teacher health, attendance, morale and performance. Research also shows that teacher turnover, a major problem in low-income schools, is significantly influenced by school building quality. It is difficult to attract and retain top-notch educators to work in dilapidated buildings when other schools offer much more current system of funding school facilities is clearly vulnerable to legal challenge. As policymakers craft responses to the current financial meltdown, initiatives to support public investment in school facilities deserve serious consideration. Such investment would provide immediate economic stimulus, which can be amortized and paid back over 20 years. Our analysis indicates that, at an annual cost of around $20 for the typical family, significant progress could be made toward providing adequate facilities for all children. Public investment in the schools of poor communities would improve school outcomes, help stabilize neighborhoods and provide needed demand in construction and allied industries. It is one of the most promising forms of public investment available to policymakers. They are (left to right): Leslie Green, Emily Quinn, Miranda Stevenson, Amanda Winter, Lisa Napierala and Nina Tignanelli. Gilbert Applied Economics Office Engineering Laboratory this publication is available free of charge from: dx. Department of Commerce Penny Pritzker, Secretary National Institute of Standards and Technology Willie May, Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology and Acting Director Abstract the use of additive manufacturing has increased significantly in previous years. Additive manufacturing is used by multiple industry subsectors, including motor vehicles, aerospace, machinery, electronics, and medical products. Currently, however, additive manufactured products represent less than one percent of all manufactured products in the U. Additive manufacturing technology opens up new opportunities for the economy and society. It can facilitate the customized production of strong light-weight products and it allows designs that were not possible with previous manufacturing techniques. In many instances, the cost of producing a product using additive manufacturing processes exceeds that of traditional methods. This report examines literature on the costs of additive manufacturing and seeks to identify those instances where additive manufacturing might be cost effective and also identify potential means for reducing costs when using this technology. Current research on additive manufacturing costs reveals that this technology is cost effective for manufacturing small batches with continued centralized manufacturing; however, with increased automation distributed production may become cost effective. Due to the complexities of measuring additive manufacturing costs, current studies are limited in their scope. Those that examine assemblies tend not to examine supply chain effects such as inventory and transportation costs along with decreased risk to supply disruption.
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