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STUDENT DIGITAL NEWSLETTER ALAGAPPA INSTITUTIONS |
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This right was realized by nominating representatives of the relevant state authorities to the board of directors and audit committee of such joint stock companies medicine 8 - love shadow generic duricef 500mg without prescription, participation in the general meetings of shareholders and veto rights on certain issues on the agenda of the general meetings of shareholders medicine 3x a day duricef 250 mg sale. The Privatization Law of July 1997 provided for a single fundamental sanction for failure to abide by the privatization rules treatment algorithm duricef 500 mg discount, i symptoms bipolar duricef 500mg discount. The statute of limitation for such claims was ten years from the consummation of the transaction treatment enlarged prostate cheap 250mg duricef mastercard. In contrast to previous legislation symptoms kidney problems cheap duricef 250mg, the Current Privatization Law allows the privatization of land plots Baker & McKenzie 251 associated with real estate objects. In addition to the usual methods of privatization recognized in other jurisdictions such as the sale of stateowned property and shares in joint-stock companies at tenders and auctions, the Current Privatization Law allows reorganization of unitary enterprises into joint-stock companies and contribution of state-owned property to the share capital of joint-stock companies. The Current Privatization Law also established a number of new methods for sale of privatized property, including, for example, the sale of shares outside the Russian Federation. At the same time, some of the previously well-known and widely used methods of privatization (such as the sale of shares in joint-stock companies to their employees, or the buyout of leased state property by the lessees) have disappeared in the Current Privatization Law. In doing this the Russian Government is trying to eliminate the use of "cheap" methods of privatization, which appears to be a reasonable and long-anticipated change based on the inadequacies of previous privatization attempts. In 2010 a number of amendments were made to the Current Privatization Law, which were mainly connected with the following: approval of a one-three year plan (program) for privatization (previously this term was for one year only); making the privatization process more transparent (certain documents such as the plan, decisions, conditions and results of privatization, are to be publicly available); determination of the starting price of the properties; privatization procedures in electronic form. Therefore, all provisions of the law that previously dealt only with joint-stock companies have been amended accordingly to affect limited liability companies as well. For instance, one of the new requirements is that a person or entity cannot participate in a public sale unless such person pays a deposit. Specific requirements applicable to privatization of such assets were set out and obligations of new private owners of such facilities to modernize and overhaul them were established. The relevant obligations follow the assets upon their disposal to subsequent owners. The plan (program) for privatization of federal property and the main guidelines for privatization of federal property for 20142016 were adopted in 2013. According to the plan (program) for privatization, the Russian Federation intends to cease its participation in non-mineral enterprises by 2016. This does not concern natural monopolies, defense industry Baker & McKenzie 253 companies, strategic companies and certain other entities and enterprises which are subject to special privatization rules. In 2014 the following matters were excluded from the scope of the Current Privatization Law: alienation of state-owned movable assets (save for shares and participation interests) title to which was obtained by the state as a result of law enforcement procedures or by way of legal succession; and alienation of federal property to private persons in exchange for their private property used in connection with the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics. The current legislation on privatization clearly demonstrates the harmonization of privatization processes and elimination of "cheap" methods of privatization. Among other information, the Government is obliged to publish reports regarding privatization each year on the Internet. Entities listed in plans (programs) for privatization are obliged to publish their book-keeping reports quarterly. Potential buyers of state or municipal property are to be informed of previous tenders for the sale of such property during the previous year and of the results of such tenders. Finally, special rules for privatization of state-owned assets that are subject to concession agreements came into force on 1 February 2015. According to such new rules, private concessionaires will have a preemptive right to purchase the state-owned assets used under concession agreements, if such assets have been included into a plan (program) for privatization. Language Policy Under Article 68 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the state language throughout the territory of the Russian Federation is Russian. All official election materials, legislation, and other legal acts, must be published in the official state language. In addition, the Constitution upholds the rights of each of the individual republics within the Russian Federation to establish its own state language. These are: the Federal Law On the State Language of the Russian Federation, the Federal Law On the Languages of the Nations of the Russian Federation, the Federal Law On Protection of Consumer Rights, and the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Article 1473). According to the abovementioned laws: (i) All Russian state and municipal bodies, and all companies operating in Russia, including those owned by foreign investors, are required to use Russian in their activities, for example in book-keeping, tax reporting and office paperwork. Paperwork in the sphere of commerce may be also conducted in a foreign language as provided in respective agreements between commercial partners. The names of companies operating in Russia must be either in Russian or expressed in Russian transliteration. It is normally permitted to also have a company name in a foreign language and/or the state language of a national republic within the Russian Federation in addition to the mandatory Russian 255 (ii) Baker & McKenzie name. A company whose name is inconsistent with the requirements of the law may be refused registration. Use of the word "Rossiya" (Russia) or "Rossiyskaya Federatsia" (Russian Federation) in Cyrillic, or a derived name, for example "Rossiyskiy" (Russian) in Cyrillic in the name of a company requires a special permit from the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, and exposes such company to certain tax consequences. Only those companies that have branch and/or representative offices in more than half the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, companies which are qualified among the largest taxpayers, companies dominant in a market with a more than a 35% market share, or companies in which more than 25% of the shares or of the charter capital is held by the Russian Federation, can apply for such a permit. However, use of words denoting ethnicity rather than the official country name, such as "Russkiy" or "Russkaya" in Cyrillic (translated into English also as "Russian") does not require a permit, as was clarified by the Russian Supreme and Supreme Arbitrazh Courts. Under the consumer protection regulations a consumer should be informed in a clear and accessible manner in the Russian language about the manufacturer (seller), the operating mode of its work and the goods (works, services) it produces or sells. When using Russian as the state language of the country, it is prohibited to use words or expressions that are not consistent with the norms of the Russian literary language, except foreign words that do not have commonly used Russian equivalents. There are a few exceptions to the requirement of mandatory usage of the Russian language outlined above. For example, trademarks and service marks expressed in the original (non-Russian) language of the trademark and registered in Russia may be used without being accompanied by a Russian equivalent. In cases provided for in specific acts of Russian federal laws, a person who does not understand Russian is entitled to an interpreter. For example, it is guaranteed for those foreigners who are subject to criminal proceedings in Russia to have a Russian interpreter free-ofcharge. There is no single state authority responsible for enforcement of the Russian language policy in the territory of the Russian Federation. Some of the aspects of the language policy, in particular violation of Russian language norms in advertising, are overseen by the Russian Antimonopoly Service. The Russian Antimonopoly Service may penalize a company in violation of the applicable language rules with a fine and/or issue it an order requiring it to cease and desist from violating the law. However, unlike many other continental European jurisdictions where civil codes are equal in their legal status with any other civil laws, the Russian Civil Code prevails over other laws (including other federal laws) in the case of inconsistencies. The Civil Code regulates virtually all elements of private law, with the notable exceptions of family law, housing law and transportation law, and consists of four parts. Together these two parts serve as the legal basis for virtually every transaction in the Russian Federation. Part I of the Civil Code provides the basics of Russian civil law and for such rights as the rights to own and inherit property; to engage in entrepreneurial activity; to establish independent legal entities, and provides for the protection of non-material attributes, in particular, defense of honor, dignity and business reputation. Part I also defines basic concepts of civil law such as a legal entity, securities, transaction, obligation, power of attorney and contract. Part I of the code provides that parties are free to enter into a contract, whether or not such type of contract is expressly recognized by law. Parties are free to conclude contracts containing elements of different types of contracts. Parties are free to agree on the terms of the contract they enter into unless the contractual terms are mandatory under Russian law. Part I further provides the rules for entering into contracts, such as an offer to make a contract and acceptance of the offer, conditional acceptance, option to enter into an agreement, late acceptance, conclusion of contracts at an auction and contract negotiations. Part I also provides for various instruments to secure the proper performance of a contract, such as pledge, surety, independent guaranty, earnest money, security deposit, withholding of property, and penalty (fine). The parties to a contract may agree to any of the above to secure the performance of the contract, as well as other security not specifically listed in the Civil Code. Part I of the code also provides for the general grounds for alteration and termination of contracts. If there is no agreement, a contract may be altered or terminated if there is either a material breach of the contract or if there is a substantial change in those circumstances that were the basis for the parties to enter into that contract. A party to a contract may also unilaterally refuse to perform its obligations if such right is established by law or the contract. The use of such right may result in the need to pay compensation to the other party. Many provisions of the Civil Code required the adoption of additional legislation. Such legislation includes the Federal Law On Joint Stock Companies, the Federal Law On Limited Liability Companies, the Federal Law On State Registration of Legal Entities and many other laws. Instances remain, however, where appropriate lower level legislation has not been adopted - the absence of a direct multimodal transport law being one such example. In addition to regular wills (which should be executed in writing and notarized), Chapter V provides for confidential wills and wills made in a simple written form. If the application of foreign law depends upon reciprocity, it shall be presumed that reciprocity exists. Generally, these conflict-of-law rules are based on the idea that a transaction should be regulated by the law of the country that has the closest connection to the transaction. The code contains conflict-oflaw rules relating to both contractual and non-contractual. Special provisions in the code determine the law applicable to international consumer transactions; assignment of rights; obligations arising from unilateral transactions; interest accrued on monetary liabilities; product and service liability; liability for unfair competition; unjust enrichment. In 2008 the President of the Russian Federation by decree launched a full-scale reform of the Civil Code aimed at making the code more flexible, up-to-date and attractive to foreign investors. As mentioned earlier, the Civil Code is one of the fundamental Russian laws underlying other Russian legislation and will therefore affect all companies doing business in Russia. By way of example, on 1 March 2013 the law introducing the first set of changes to the Civil Code, which concern in particular the state registration of property, the principle of good faith in business and abuse of rights, came into force. According to these changes, from March 2013 there is no need to register transactions with real estate, instead only rights to real estate will require state registration. These changes were designed to end a burdensome system of double registration under which, for instance, the sale of an apartment required simultaneous registration of the sale and purchase contract as well as of the transfer of title to the new owner. The principle of good faith in conducting business affairs was introduced into the Civil Code as one of the main principles of civil legislation. This is aimed at bringing Russian law closer to European rules where courts have greater flexibility in evaluating the business conduct of the parties. This will mean that bona fide participants of commerce should be better protected. From now on such abuse of rights may result in the need to pay Baker & McKenzie 261 damages to those whose own rights are violated by such abuse as well as possibly more serious consequences such as invalidation of transactions concluded with an abuse of rights. Other significant changes of 2013 include abolishment of the mandatory requirement for an international transaction to be in writing, change in rules on challenging transactions making it less easy to challenge a transaction purely on formal grounds, and introduction of new rules which envisage that a power of attorney can be irrevocable. In 2015 several new concepts were introduced, such as insolvency of a citizen, alternative and optional obligations, a fine for failure to perform under a court ruling ("astrent"), the so-called option agreement, inter-creditor and framework agreements. Further changes to property rights and rules of succession are expected to follow. Any foreign legal entity or individual may seek protection for its/his/her intellectual property rights in Russia, provided that the requirements of the law are satisfied. Patent protection is given to an invention if it is novel, inventive (non-obvious from prior art) and industrially applicable. The maximum duration of patent protection for an invention is 20 years from the application filing date, subject to payment of annuities. The term of a patent for an invention related to a medicine, pesticide or agrochemical, the use of which is subject to obtaining special permission (Marketing Authorization), may be extended at the request of the patent owner for a period not exceeding five years. A patent application is filed with the Federal Service for Intellectual Property, Patents and Trademarks ("Rospatent"). Utility model protection is similar to that of inventions, with certain limitations and restrictions. A utility model is granted patent protection if it is novel and industrially applicable. One application can cover only one device, variants have not been possible since 1 October 2014. An industrial design is an artistic and construction solution that determines the outer appearance of a product of industrial or handicraft origin by its images. An industrial design is granted patent 264 Baker & McKenzie Doing Business in Russia protection if its essential features as present on the images are novel and original. An industrial design is deemed novel if the combination of its essential features from the images is not known from information publicly available in the world before the priority date of the industrial design. Legal protection of industrial design patents granted prior to 1 January 2015 lasts for 15 years, subject to payment of annuities, and with the possibility of extension for an additional period specified in the application, but not exceeding ten years. Starting from 1 January 2015 the initial term of industrial design patent validity lasts for five years, extendable four times for an additional five years (25 years in total). The regional patent system is based on the Eurasian Patent Convention of 1995 (the "Convention"), which enables one Eurasian patent to cover eight countries that are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Both Russian and Eurasian patents for inventions can be obtained to protect an invention in Russia. Utility models and industrial designs are not covered by the Convention and can be protected only under national patent law. A granted Russian patent may be invalidated on a limited number of grounds, such as the patented invention, utility model or industrial design not complying with the conditions of patentability established by Russian patent law; the patented invention, utility model or industrial design not being sufficiently disclosed to enable implementation by a skilled person; the patent being issued when there were several applications for identical inventions, utility models or industrial designs having one and the same priority date; the patent indicating as the author or patent holder a person not being such or without an indication in the patent of the author or patent holder. A patented invention or utility model will be deemed used in a product or by a method if the product contains, or the method uses, each Baker & McKenzie 265 feature of the patented invention or utility model stated in an independent claim of the invention or utility model, or a feature equivalent thereto. Equivalence of a feature is generally assessed according to the criteria of identical or adequate replacement and achievement of the same technical function/effect. Patent rights are protected by the remedies contained in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (see section 17. Preliminary or interim injunctions are available but rarely granted in patent cases at present.
If needs ones treatment toenail fungus buy duricef 500 mg on line, they still are used by are not fulfilled at any level medications 3605 buy 500 mg duricef amex, conflict results keratin intensive treatment cheap 500mg duricef fast delivery. Because researchers often rely on diagnostic labels to study underlying factors that may cause disorders medicine cups buy duricef 250mg lowest price, it is especially important for their work that patients with similar symptoms be classified in the same diagnostic category treatment quadricep strain cheap duricef 250 mg without prescription. Often a person may exhibit more than one disorder or may be experiencing other stresses that complicate the diagnosis symptoms week by week buy generic duricef 250mg. In early classification systems, it was difficult to give a patient more than one label. In some neurosis is no longer used to identify any cases, a physical disorder such as brain damage or a psychological disorder. Occupational functioning involves functioning as a worker, student, or homemaker and the quality of the work accomplished. Use of leisure time includes recreational activities or hobbies and the degree of involvement and pleasure a person has in them. In one experiment, grade-school boys behaved in a more critical manner toward other boys if they had been led to believe that those other boys had a psychological disorder, such as attention deficit disorder (Harris et al. Visualize the Main Idea Using a diagram similar to the one below, identify and describe three approaches psychologists use to identify psychological disorders. Explain how they differ from the descriptions in this section and why you defined them the way you did. Vocabulary anxiety phobia panic disorder post-traumatic stress disorder · · · · Objectives · Identify the behavioral patterns that psychologists label as anxiety disorders. These disorders share certain characteristics, including feelings of anxiety and personal inadequacy and an avoidance of dealing with problems. Their emotional problems may be expressed in constant worrying, sudden mood swings, or a variety of physical symptoms (for example, headaches, sweating, muscle tightness, weakness, and fatigue). Even though their behavior may be self-defeating and ineffective in solving problems, those driven by anxiety often refuse to give up their behaviors in favor of more effective ways of dealing with anxiety. This anxiety potentially could blossom into full-fledged panic one is in danger attacks, which may include choking sensations, chest pain, dizziness, trembling, and hot flashes. They may become so preoccupied with their internal problems that they neglect their social relationships. People who experience generalized anxiety often have trouble dealing with their family and friends and fulfilling their responsibilities, and this adds to their anxiety. The more they worry, the more difficulty they have; the more difficulty they have, the more they worry. Many situations may cause Often the experience of generalized anxiety is accompanied temporary anxiety or tension. Poor appetite, when it interferes with your ability indigestion, diarrhea, and frequent urination are also common. What Because anxious people are in a constant state of apprehension, are some characteristics of they may have difficulty sleeping or, once asleep, may wake up people who suffer from anxiety suddenly in the night. If a man feels very anxious on a date, for example, even the thought of another date may make him nervous, so he learns to avoid having dates and therefore never has a chance to unlearn the anxiety. Environmental factors, such as unpredictable traumatic experiences in childhood, may also predispose someone to developing an anxiety disorder. A specific phobia can focus on almost anything, including high places (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), and darkness (nyctophobia) (see Figure 16. Victims of social phobias fear that they will embarrass themselves in a public place or a social setting. Perhaps the most common specific fear is of speaking in public, but others include eating in public, using public restrooms, meeting strangers, and going on a first date. For example, people suffering from an extreme fear of being in a public place (agoraphobia) may stop going to movies or shopping in large, busy stores. Some reach the point where they will not leave their houses at all because that is the only place they feel safe. Although most people do not experience severe phobias, many do experience mild fears. Record the results in a chart or graph, differentiating responses of the teenagers from those of the adults. Although symptoms of panic disorder differ from individual to individual, they may include a sense of smothering, choking, or difficulty breathing; faintness or dizziness; nausea; and chest pains. However, the panic victim usually experiences the first attack shortly after a stressful event. See the Skills A compulsive person may feel compelled to wash his Handbook, page 622, hands 20 or 30 times a day or to avoid stepping on cracks in for an explanation of designing the sidewalk when he goes out. In addition, compulsions provide a disturbed person with the evidence that she is doing something 458 Chapter 16 / Psychological Disorders well, even if it is only avoiding the cracks on a sidewalk. Although most people with obsessive-compulsive disorder realize that their thoughts and actions are irrational, they feel unable to stop them. Studies show that survivors of Nazi concentration camps and soldiers returning from war may display symptoms decades after the traumatic event. Social support, as discussed in Chapter 15, may protect a victim of trauma from the psychological aftereffects. Visualize the Main Idea Using a diagram similar to the one below, list five symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. Think Critically How would you differentiate between someone who is simply a perfectionist and someone who is suffering from obsessivecompulsive disorder? There is an ancient Persian legend about a physician named Rhazes who was called into the palace for the purpose of diagnosing and treating a young prince. Laughlin, 1967 the inability to deal with anxiety and stress can lead to somatoform and dissociative disorders. Vocabulary somatoform disorder conversion disorder dissociative disorder dissociative amnesia dissociative fugue dissociative identity disorder · · · · · · Objectives · Identify the behavioral patterns that psychologists label as somatoform disorders. These disorders are characterized by physical symptoms brought about by psychological distress. Two of the major types of somatoform disorders that psychologists identify are conversion disorders and hypochondriasis. This calmness is one sign that a person is suffering from a psychological rather than a physiological problem. For example, a woman who lives in terror of blurting out things that she does not want to say may lose the power of speech. The hypochondriac spends a lot of time looking for signs of serious illness and often misinterprets minor aches, pains, bruises, or bumps as early signs of a fatal illness. Some people may accuse those suffering from hypochondriasis of faking their illness (and preventing their own happiness). These people, though, do not fake their symptoms; they unrealistically interpret normal aches and pains as symptoms of more serious illnesses. According to psychoanalytic theory, hypochondriasis, like conversion, occurs when an individual represses emotions and then expresses them symbolically in physical symptoms. These psychological phenomena fascinate many people, so we hear a good deal about amnesia and multiple personalities. Memory loss that has no biological explanation, or dissociative amnesia, may be an attempt to escape from problems by blotting them out completely. Amnesiacs remember how to speak and usually retain a fund of general knowledge, but they may not know who they are, where they live and work, or who their family is. Dissociative amnesia most often results from a traumatic event, such as witnessing a terrible accident. In dissociative fugue, another type of dissociative reaction, amnesia is coupled with active flight to a different environment. For example, a woman may suddenly disappear and wake up three days later in a restaurant 200 miles from home. If she is not treated, she may actually establish a new identity-assume a new name, marry, take a job, and so forth-in a new place. However long it lasts, the individual, when she comes out of it, will have no memory of what happened in the interim. In dissociative identity disorder (previously known as multiple personality disorder), a third type of dissociative disorder, someone seems to have two or more distinct identities, each with its own way of thinking and behaving. Eve White, a young woman who sought psychiatric treatment for severe headaches and blackouts, has become a famous example. However, during one of her therapy sessions, her expression-and her personality-suddenly changed. She created this painting to symbolize the personalities present within her when emerged during the course of therapy. People diagnosed with this disorder usually suffered severe physical, psychological, or sexual abuse during childhood. Individuals with dissociative disorders have learned to dissociate themselves from such stressful events by selectively forgetting them, thereby reducing the anxiety they feel. Recall Information What is the difference between a conversion disorder and hypochondriasis? Those who suffer from the ailment have developed great sensitivity to emotional pain and will use any methods possible to avoid feeling it. The sufferers often attempt to hospitalize themselves with self-defined or self-induced symptoms. Overdosing on psychoactive drugs to induce delusions and hallucinations is common for them. Patients may use techniques of persuasion to try to influence the physician to perform thorough medical investigations. Syringes are left lying around, they do not conceal pills neatly, and they allow themselves to be observed during their symptom-causing routines. A physician, though, has trouble finding Analyzing the Case Study these symptoms when examining the 1. What is the danger in sive heat to make these symptoms misdiagnosing this disorder? In addition, we can appreciate how people with these problems strive to overcome them as best they can. An individual with schizophrenia, however, who withdraws from normal life and whose distorted perceptions and behavior reach an irrational, fantastic, fear-laden, unimaginable T Chapter 16 / Psychological Disorders 465 schizophrenia: a group of disorders characterized by confused and disconnected thoughts, emotions, and perceptions level, does so in ways that are difficult to understand. While the disorders discussed thus far are primarily problems of emotion, schizophrenia is a problem of cognition, but it also involves emotion, hallucinations: perceptions perception, and motor functions. Schizophrenia affects about 1 percent of that have no direct external people worldwide, including 2. One expert has noted that someone with depression or severe anxiety problems dreams in an unreal way about life, while a person with schizophrenia lives life as an unreal dream. Rather, it is a collection of Schizophrenia and autism involve symptoms that indicates an individual has serious diffineurons in specialized areas of the brain. In autism, errors in the final stages of brain culty trying to meet the demands of life. He is processing, and the emotional coloration of intensely excited, expresses extreme hostility toward those processes (Ciaranello, 2001). If you pick up an withdraws and acts as if he does not hear anything she autistic child, he or she is stiff or limp; the says. Second, an autistic child is very slow in other behavior indicates psychological problems, this last developing language and communication statement would be the diagnostic bell ringer. By age 5 or 6, they may simply repeat that the man is living in a private, disordered reality. Third, autistic children are very Many individuals with schizophrenia experience limited in their interests and behavior. They delusions-false beliefs maintained in the face of conmay abuse themselves or repeat a simple trary evidence-and hallucinations-perceptions in the hand motion for hours without ceasing. One play a role (see Chapter 6; Ciaranello, 2001); is incoherence, or a marked decline in thought processes. Another symptom is 466 Chapter 16 / Psychological Disorders disturbances of affect, or emotions that are inappropriate for the circumstances. People with the catatonic type may remain motionless for long periods, exhibiting a waxy flexibility in which limbs in unusual positions may take a long time to return to a resting, relaxed position- exactly as if melting a wax statue (see Figure 16. Symptoms of the disorganized type include incoherent language, inappropriate emotions, giggling for no apparent reason, generally disorganized motor behavior, and hallucinations and delusions. This diagnostic label is applied to anyone whose symptoms are completely gone or still exist but are not severe enough to have earned a diagnosis of schizophrenia in the first place. It is sometimes difficult to differentiate between types of schizophrenia because some symptoms are shared by all types. The undifferentiated type encompasses the basic symptoms of schizophrenia, such as deterioration of daily functioning, hallucinations, delusions, inappropriate emotions, and thought disorders. Long-term institutionalization sometimes leads to a patient who is burned out-one who is unlikely to function normally in society. Although recovery from schizophrenia is possible, no real cure for schizophrenia exists, and once an individual is diagnosed with schizophrenia, he or she may never escape from it. There are many theories, and just as certainly, there is disagreement among practitioners. Biological Influences Genetics is almost certainly involved in causing schizophrenia. As confirmed by others, he found that there is a 1 percent likelihood that anyone in the general population will develop schizophrenia. Across several studies, if one or more siblings type of schizophrenia can hold an are diagnosed with schizophrenia, other children in the famunusual position for long periods of ily will later be diagnosed with the condition less than time. Some psychologists believe that psychosis is due largely to chemical imbalances in the brain. One psychologist (Carlsson, 1988) notes that correlational studies are not enough to demonstrate a direct role for dopamine in schizophrenia. Symptoms of schizophrenia may even be caused by the fact that people with schizophrenia tend to live in hospitals, where they get little exercise, eat institutional food, and are usually given daily doses of tranquilizers. Living under such conditions, anyone might develop chemical imbalances and abnormal behavior.
Emphasizes how between-individual varia- 631 tion in population members can completely change the predictions of game theory medications covered by medicaid 500mg duricef with mastercard. A general overview that goes into more depth on some issues than this chapter does medications and grapefruit order duricef 250 mg. The developmental osteoporosis treatment purchase duricef 250 mg without prescription, physiological shinee symptoms generic 500mg duricef overnight delivery, neural treatment toenail fungus buy generic duricef 250mg line, and genetical causes and consequences of frequency-dependent selection in the wild treatment bacterial vaginosis cheap duricef 500 mg with visa. Mating systems reflect the action of sexual selection, including sexual conflict, and can be quantified. The number of individu- equal to the total variance in reproductive success divided by the square of the mean reproductive success, that is, Imates. The degree to which multiple mates, or resources critical to gaining multiple mates, are economically defendable. Has multiple definitions; the maximum number of independent offspring that parents can produce per unit time when mating partners are freely available but all other constraints in terms of environmental factors (such as food, number and sizes of nest sites, temperature) remain. Average ratio of fertilizable females (or more generally, the limiting sex) to sexually active males (or more generally, the competing sex) at any given time. Frequently used as a synonym for the intensity of sexual selection but more correctly defined by an equation in which it is the simplest definition of a mating system for either plants or animals is a description of who mates with whom and when. Beyond this general description, however, discussions of animal and plant mating systems diverge. In animals, mating system descriptions include the general behavioral strategy employed in obtaining mates, encompassing not only the number of mates acquired and when but other features such as the manner of mate acquisition and the patterns of parental care provided by each sex. Despite such a simple general definition, understanding the evolution of mating systems is complex. Moreover, methods for quantifying the nature of selection that contributes to the evolution of mating systems are contentious. The study of mating systems, for both animals and plants, began-like much of the study of evolution- with Charles Darwin. In this context, Darwin contributed his second idea about how evolution works, that of sexual selection. Darwin recognized that the marked sexual dimorphism-one of the most striking and easily observed of natural phenomena-seen in many animals could be contrary to the action of natural selection and thus would undermine his theory of evolutionary change. To resolve this conundrum, he suggested that individuals struggle not only to exist but also to acquire mates, and this selection results in sex-limited traits that are used to either compete for or choose mates. The inherent differences between the sexes can lead to conflicts of interest between males and females in evolutionary outcomes; this sexual conflict is now embedded in sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems. Darwin described animal mating systems using the now-familiar descriptions of monogamy and polygamy. He also intuitively realized that polygamous species, relative to monogamous species, should experience stronger sexual selection because there is a greater opportunity for increased variation in mating success among males in polygamous species. If the intensity of sexual selection is positively related to the extent of sexual dimorphism, and sexual dimorphism is so conspicuous, then why would most taxa be monogamous? Biologists now recognize that Darwin was wrong about the extent of monogamy; through better observation and molecular parentage tools-and perhaps a more accepting society-most animal systems are now known to be polygamous to some degree. Since we now generally have a catalog of the mating systems of taxa, what is the point of modern studies of the evolution of mating systems? There are several research questions that are fundamental, but unresolved, regarding the evolution of mating systems; we focus on three. First, while it is generally 633 agreed that the intensity of sexual selection influences the mating system, how to measure sexual selection and therefore how to quantify and predict which mating system will be observed is controversial. Second, mating systems can affect the evolutionary potential of a population through a variety of mechanisms. However, these effects are predominantly theoretical and tested across a limited set of taxa. Third, anthropogenic changes via spatiotemporal changes in resource availability may alter mating systems. Such changes in the mating system can alter genetic variability, potentially affecting the ability of a population to respond to environmental change, but few studies have assessed the relationship among these factors. The strength of sexual selection can be measured using different, highly debated methods, but in essence the larger the variance in mating success experienced by one sex, the stronger the sexual selection on that sex. Thus, theory predicts that sexual selection should be a much stronger evolutionary force in taxa in which some individuals of one sex are successful at both mating and preventing other individuals of the same sex from reproducing. In 1977 the first attempt at a unified evolutionary hypothesis to explain variation in animal mating systems was put forward by Stephen Emlen and Lewis Oring. Their model, herein called the E and O model, is descriptive, based on the spatiotemporal distribution of receptive mates and/or the resources used to monopolize mates. The model arises from Darwin, and its subsequent development uses economic cost-benefit analyses, applied to ecology. Darwin wrote that competition for access to mates occurs because one sex is a limiting factor for the other; one sex competes among its members for a limiting resource, leading to variance in mating success for the nonlimiting sex. Thus, understanding why different taxa exhibit different mating systems is, in essence, a process of determining why in certain species one sex is less of a limiting resource than in other species. For example, in the European bitterling fish, larger males are territorial, and most spawning involves breeding pairs. Thus, the mating system changes from one of resource defense polygyny to that of scramble (or explosive breeding assemblage) competition, in which large males abandon territoriality, and group spawning occurs. First, this exclusion causes errors in the calculation of the strength of sexual selection by overestimating population fitness and underestimating variance in fitness. Under strong sexual selection, more individuals are left out of the equation, and these errors become larger. Thus, the predicted mating system, which is based on variance in mating success of one sex, will be underestimated. Both these measures are consistent with quantitative genetic theory and measurement of selection, and are independent of phenotypic traits. Moreover, they are more general cost of larger eggs-anisogamy), females are the limiting resource, and therefore males compete for them. The E and O model suggests that male variation in mating success, the extent of which influences the intensity of sexual selection, reflects the ability of males to control (or not) access of others to potential mates. This monopolization may be over females themselves or over resources that females may require. Resources vary in space and time, and thus ecological constraints on the sexes determine the intensity of sexual selection and the mating system. The original intention of the E and O model was to allow for predictions regarding how the environment, through ecological constraints, results in the evolution of animal mating systems. These categories represent a description of the degree to which a sex can monopolize resources. Thus in monogamy, neither sex has the opportunity for monopolization, whereas in resource defense polygyny, males have the opportunity to control access to critical resources required by females and thereby indirectly control access to females. If a resource becomes too expensive to defend, then the mating system may move away from polygyny and toward monogamy. Much of the E and O model is intuitive, and it enjoyed considerable success, especially early on. Major categories of mating systems using three different classification schemes Main category 1 male and 1 female have an exclusive relationship. Resource defense Female (harem) defense Male dominance- two forms: Explosive breeding and assemblages Leks Mates and resources are not defendable, so males aggregate during breeding season, and females select mates from these aggregations. Resource defense Female access Individual females control or gain access to multiple males. Subcategory Definition based on mate number Definition based on monopolizability Definition based on opportunity for sexual selection Each sex mates once; variance in mate number for both males and females = 0. Females mate once, whereas males are variable in mate number; variance in mate number for females = 0; variance in mate number of males = ++. Monogamy Polygyny Polyandry Males mate once, whereas females are variable in mate number; variance in female mate number = ++; variance in male mate number = 0. Polygynandry Both sexes have variable mate numbers, but male mating is more variable than that of females. Both sexes have variable mate numbers, but male mating is less variable than that of females. However, studies directly comparing these indexes have reached different conclusions about the congruency between them. Seemingly, the only idea with which everyone agrees is that no current specific measure or combination of measures used to quantify sexual selection, and thus mating systems, satisfies everyone. In the case of understanding sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems, the particular trait of interest is the number of mates, assuming that higher mating success results in more offspring. If the regression of fitness on mating success gives a gradient of zero, then sexual selection is typically nonexistent. In contrast, if the gradient is steep, then sexual selection will act strongly on some trait correlated with mating success. Thus, it has been suggested that bss provides an estimate of the strength of selection acting on mating success. However, subsequently understanding why either populations or species have different Bateman gradients requires uncovering the cause both of differences among individuals in their ability to acquire mates and of nonzero Bateman gradients. The opportunity for sexual selection (Is) measures the standardized variance in mating success and is an upper limit of the strength of sexual selection. One proposed advantage to this measure is that it may predict the level of sexual dimorphism as an outcome of sexual selection. While described by some as being a direct measure of selection, it is actually still a proxy, because although Is represents the upper limit of selection, there is little knowledge regarding the relationship between it and the actual strength of selection. In cases where this parameter is not known, Stephen Shuster and Michael Wade have suggested that calculating how critical resources, particularly females, are clumped in space and time may serve as a measure of the strength of sexual selection, and they use the concept of mean crowding to quantify these variables as m* and t*, respectively. High values of m* reflect spatially clumped resources, whereas low values indicate overdispersion; high values of t* reflect temporal invariability. Thus high values of m* and low values of t* represent conditions in which one sex would have the potential to monopolize resources, the opportunity for sexual selection would be great, and the mating system would reflect one based on resource or defense. The contrasting values would represent little ability for one sex to monopolize resources, a low opportunity for sexual selection, and a mating system tending toward monogamy. These different measures of sexual selection, along with other less used suggestions not discussed here, are 3. These frameworks often lack a common terminology, but mating system descriptions also can overlap, be redundant, represent inadequate descriptions, or lend themselves to incorrect usage relative to formal definitions. For example, monogamy is frequently defined as the condition in which each sex has only one partner. For example, under the general E and O framework (table 1), polyandry is a mating system in which females have variable numbers of mates, while males mate with a single female. In trying to understand female multiple mating, many researchers have asked, What is the evolutionary benefit of polyandry? But in this context, most researchers are following the definition of polyandry provided by Thornhill and Alcock in which polyandry simply means female multiple mating with no conditions regarding the number of mates for males. Perhaps such a system may be described as promiscuous, in which both males and females mate with multiple partners. Yet the term is loaded with connotations about indiscriminate mating, which is the direct opposite of what is being asked by researchers studying the functional significance of polyandry, which is primarily focused on the evolutionary rationale for female choice. In an attempt to solve these descriptive problems, Shuster and Wade use their framework to further delineate mating systems. While quantitative (although the variables necessary to determine mating system [i. Sexual Selection and Mating Systems So, how many mating system categories are necessary? Categorizing phenomena is something humans do, but doing so implies rigidness to those phenomena. If the E and O model is mostly correct, then spatiotemporal resource distribution is the driving factor in the evolution of mating systems. Given that resources are frequently ephemeral across space and time, mating systems are likely dynamic rather than static. Intraspecific mating system variability has been associated with changes in such factors as population density, as discussed earlier regarding the European bitterling; predation; food availability; and climate change. Thus, a species "mating system" is likely much more flexible than mating system terminology suggests. Problems associated with correct use of mating system terminology may be more than mere nuisances, as these terms give the impression that mating systems are discrete rather than continuous. The Shuster and Wade model most approximates a continuous distribution of mating systems, but whether it is feasible to implement remains debated. Sexual selection results in the evolution of behavioral, morphological, and physiological traits. The ability to predict how these traits change in response to underlying environmental variables that control mating systems is critical. These changes in behavior are in response to the ability of males to monopolize females and to the costs and benefits of mating for females. The ability to monopolize mates at both pre- and postcopulatory stages is one of the driving forces of sexual conflict and sperm competition. In mating systems that are predominantly determined through direct competition, males may conserve energy when competition gets extreme and the economic defendability of mates is unsustainable-as predicted by the E and O model. In contrast, behaviors that function indirectly to monopolize mates did not exhibit the same response, either to one another or to direct 637 competition. Mate guarding and copulation duration (if it serves as mate guarding) may increase, as it benefits a male to ensure his fertilization success when there are many competitors around rather than to seek additional mates that may already have a partner. If males do not have partners, then increasing copulation attempts is the only option for securing a mate. Additionally, per capita courtship rate decreased because males were competing for the same female. However, as (receptive) males become more prevalent in the population, sexual coercion by males may increase, and sexual conflict can result. Sexual conflict is thought to be particularly strong over mating decisions because of this sex disparity in optimal mating rate.
Eggs are carried after oviposition externally or internally in specialized pouches; found in some amphibians medicine to increase appetite order 500 mg duricef overnight delivery, mouthbrooding fishes medicine kit for babies purchase duricef 500mg line. Fertilized eggs are retained within the female reproductive tract during embryonic development; ubiquitous in marsupial and eutherian mammals symptoms 5 dpo generic duricef 250mg free shipping, more sporadic in squamate reptiles medications 126 cheap 500mg duricef overnight delivery, fish medicine park lodging generic 250 mg duricef with mastercard, insects treatment yeast overgrowth order 250mg duricef with amex, onychophorans, mollusks, tunicates, echinoderms, arachnids, and bryozoans. Parents remain with offspring after hatching/birth either at a fixed location or by following the offspring as they move around; ubiquitous in mammals, birds, and fish, but also found in insects and spiders. External carrying occurs in some frogs, primates, scorpions, and a range of marine invertebrates. Ranges from the transfer of nutrients through a placenta and mass provisioning of brood chambers prior to birth and hatching to progressive provisioning of prey items or specialized secretions (milk) after hatching or birth; ubiquitous in mammals and birds, but also found in some fish, amphibians, insects, spiders, and other invertebrates. Offspring are cared for after they have reached the age of nutritional independence, for example, to help offspring in competition with conspecifics or to protect them against natural enemies; found in some birds (cygnets), mammals (hyenas, red squirrels), and insects (burying beetle, earwigs). Requires long life span and overlapping generations and is correspondingly limited to few taxa. For example, grandparental care in humans: assistance to offspring that have become parents. Oviposition- and nest-site selection Burrowing and nest building Egg attendance Egg brooding Viviparity Offspring attendance Offspring brooding Offspring food provisioning Care after nutritional independence Care for mature offspring offspring against the number of additional offspring they could produce now or in the future. It is only because offspring are genetically related to parents that such behavior may be worthwhile and makes it possible for parental care to evolve. But even when parents and offspring share genes in common, parental care can evolve only if the benefits of care to offspring outweigh the costs to the parent. Imagine a mutation in a female that leads her to stay with her offspring and protect them against predators. Will this mutation increase in frequency in the next generation and spread through the population over time? By being protected from predators the offspring will, on average, have an 666 Evolution of Behavior, Society, and Humans However, it is important to specify precisely how ecological hazards affect parents and offspring. A generally harsh environment will not necessarily favor the evolution of parental care. If harsh environments have negative effects on both adult and juvenile life stages, any potential benefit of care to the offspring may be offset by a high cost to parents. But parental care is much more likely to evolve if the harshness of the environment has a stronger effect on juveniles than on parents. For example, if a main source of mortality is predation by a specialized egg predator that poses no threat to the parent, parental egg attendance might be a very beneficial strategy that should easily spread. Likewise, cannibalism on eggs or offspring by adults from the same species, which is a common phenomenon in many invertebrates, poses typically higher threats on egg and juvenile stages and may favor the origin of egg attendance in a similar way. There is no single ubiquitous factor that explains the evolutionary origin of parental care across all systems or in a given species. For example, parental protection is not the only possible evolutionary answer to reducing predator-induced offspring mortality. Natural selection can also favor adaptations in the offspring themselves, such as camouflage, that deal with the same hazards. The key factor that promotes the evolution of parental care as opposed to adaptations in offspring is how environmental hazards differentially affect the fitness of parents versus offspring. However, even if the female does so, selection does not necessarily favor the spread of the mutation, as it depends on the costs to the female. For example, the female herself may be more exposed to predators by remaining with her offspring, or she may delay or impair her future breeding owing to the time and resources spent on the defense of her current offspring. Thus, answering questions about the origin of parental care requires an understanding of the factors that affect parentoffspring relatedness, the fitness benefits to offspring, and the fitness costs to parents. Temporary spatial aggregation of parents and their offspring is an important condition that promotes the evolution of parental care for two main reasons. First, it ensures that in an ancestral population where parental care originates, those few individuals that carry a mutation for parental care will pass the benefits of care on to their own offspring, which are also likely to be carriers of the mutation. Second, it increases the probability that parental care can be provided effectively and will improve offspring fitness. If offspring were widely dispersed, it would be more difficult, risky, and time consuming for parents to provide care for their offspring, thus increasing the costs of care to parents. Selection therefore favors the origin of parental care in species that already produce their offspring in clutches or litters and have offspring that remain near the parent for the duration of care. Variation in life histories of species is another important condition that influences the evolution of parental care. Some organisms develop very quickly, while others have very slow developmental times. Some reproduce only once during their lifetime and produce many offspring in a single clutch or litter. If parental care enhances offspring development and thereby the fitness prospects of these offspring, it should evolve more readily in a species with relatively slow development, because the beneficial effect of care can accumulate over a longer period of time. Parental care may also be more likely to evolve when the prospects for future reproduction of parents are low, and the value of the current offspring is correspondingly high. In particular, food availability and natural enemies such as predators or parasites are thought to have played a central role in the origin of parental care. In particular, parental care not only is a target of selection but also generates variation in offspring phenotypes and survival. For example, the current benefit of food provisioning in many species reflects that juvenile survival of offspring is completely dependent on food provided by parents. It is unlikely that such a dependency would characterize an ancestral population in which food provisioning evolved for the first time, and offspring still retained the ability to forage independently of their parents. Thus, offspring dependency must have evolved secondarily, by coevolving with parental food provisioning and thereby enhancing the adaptive value of provisioning. Conversely, once parental care evolved, conflicts and socially parasitic strategies could have partly undermined the original Evolution of Parental Care adaptive value of parental care. As a consequence, studies on the current adaptive value of parental care provide little insight into how parental food provisioning increased offspring fitness in the ancestral state. The key question then is, What are the main forces that maintain parental care and shape the coevolution of offspring and parental traits? Parents that care for offspring pay a cost by doing so, as they normally cannot remate at the same time. These attributes of parental care characterize parental care as an altruistic trait and modify selection during the mating period (sexual selection) as well as selection on lifehistory traits, such as longevity. Furthermore, following the origin of parental care, the social environment in which offspring develop is partly provided by the parent, which has evolved to enhance offspring development. These forms of social evolution and contingency lead to the coevolution of parent and offspring traits. Finally, because parents and offspring are not genetically identical in sexually reproducing organisms, parental care can induce the scope for genetic conflicts of interest that, in turn, may shape adaptations to family life. In sexually reproducing species, three social dimensions of within-family conflicts have to be considered: sexual conflict, parent-offspring conflict, and sibling conflict. All offspring have two parents, and the benefits of parental care depend on the combined amount of care provided by the two parents. This situation leads to sexual conflict over which parent should provide parental care and, in species in which both parents provide care, conflict over the amount of care that should be contributed by each parent. Male-only parental care also occurs, most notably in some amphibians and some fish; and biparental care, in which both males and females care for offspring, is most common in birds. However, even in species with biparental care the sexes rarely provide parental care in exactly the same way. For example, in many species of birds only females incubate eggs, although both parents may feed nestlings. The different size of male and female gametes (anisogamy) means that there are fewer female gametes (eggs) than male gametes (sperm). This difference leads to sexual 667 selection in males to locate unfertilized eggs, increasing their benefits of mating effort at the expense of parental effort. Sperm competition as a result of multiple males competing for and mating with females lowers the average relatedness of males to young compared with that of females, further decreasing the benefits of paternal care. This may be especially relevant for males that are successful in mating, who will have mating opportunities elsewhere. However, selection favors male parental care when the population of individuals in the mating pool is very male biased, making the probability of success in mating very low. In these circumstances it is better, on average, for males to invest in offspring that already exist (parental effort) rather than to invest in future offspring (mating effort). For species in which caring parents interact with their offspring, and especially when such interactions occur over long periods, there is ample scope for offspring to influence the care provided by parents. In terms of genetic relatedness, each offspring is of equal importance to parents, but individual offspring are expected to value their own survival and reproduction more highly than that of their siblings. Each offspring is therefore under selection to demand more resources for itself than the parent is under selection to provide, leading to sibling competition and parent-offspring conflict, which are therefore tightly linked. Whenever offspring are produced in clutches or litters, there is opportunity for sibling competition over the limited resources provided by parents. Because parents often initially produce more offspring than they can rear-as insurance against unpredictability of environmental resource availability or hatching failure- demand typically exceeds supply, thus intensifying the conflict. While close genetic relatedness often leads to the evolution of altruism and cooperation, the mismatch between parental supply and offspring demand tends to override any benefits of sibling cooperation. Thus, sibling competition can be extremely severe and involve lethal aggression, as in cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), in which older chicks frequently kill their younger siblings. A large body of theory has shown that parent-offspring conflict is expected to favor the evolution of elaborate forms of communication, such as begging by nestling birds, or high levels of aggression among siblings. If parents are sensitive to offspring demands for resources, the genetic conflict favors offspring that exaggerate their demands to manipulate the parents into providing more resources. In a coevolutionary arms race, this form of offspring manipulation generates selection on parents to 668 Evolution of Behavior, Society, and Humans ploit the parental behaviors of their hosts. Female cuckoos lay an egg into the nest of a host species, timed very precisely to avoid detection and rejection by the host parents. It then uses effective acoustic trickery that makes it sound like a whole brood of host chicks to stimulate its foster parents into providing as much food as they normally provide to a whole brood. The parasitized parents, although typically being much smaller than the cuckoo they feed, provide the rapidly growing brood parasite with all the food it needs to reach independence. Social parasitism provides a good example of how the original benefits of parental care can be partially undermined once evolved. With increasing frequency of socially parasitic strategies in the population, the evolutionary benefit of parental care is reduced, thereby generating negative frequency-dependent selection on the parasitic strategy and/or selection for defense mechanisms in the hosts. Social parasitism provides a particularly clear example of the important role that social interactions play in driving the coevolutionary processes that result in the evolution and diversification of parental care and associated traits. Resolution does not imply that there is no more conflict, just that there are no further opportunities for the manipulation of parents by offspring, and vice versa. Theoretical models of parent-offspring conflict have shown that evolutionarily stable resolutions of parentoffspring conflict usually require that offspring begging be costly to offspring, thus preventing further evolutionary escalation. Stability is also determined by whether parents or the offspring control the allocation of resources. If parents gain control, and there is selection for offspring to provide costly and honest information about their need or quality, then parents can use that information to allocate resources in a way that optimizes their own fitness. An alternative evolutionary route to resolving conflict is for offspring to gain control over who is being fed by the parent. In that case, the parent has no direct control over the information provided by offspring and allocates resources passively in a way that primarily serves the evolutionary interests of the offspring. Parental care generates a social environment that is favorable for the growth, development, and survival of offspring. Parental care generates a social niche for parasitic adaptations that exploit parental behaviors. For example, it is well documented that females of some birds such as starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) lay eggs in foreign nests, a behavior called egg dumping. Egg dumping is often used by subordinate females that are unable to breed on their own. By dumping an egg into the nest of a breeding conspecific, they parasitize the caring behavior of the breeder to gain some reproductive success despite not breeding on their own. Social parasitism is not limited to higher vertebrates and can also take place after hatching, as in the European earwig (Forficula auricularia). In this species, nymphs are relatively mobile soon after hatching and can disperse to join other earwig broods, thereby parasitizing the care provided by an unrelated female. While female earwigs tolerate foreign offspring, the nymphs can discriminate unrelated nymphs from siblings and often kill and cannibalize unrelated nest mates. A well-known example of brood parasitism between species is the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), which never cares for offspring itself and parasitizes the parental care of a wide range of passerine host species. As obligate brood parasites, cuckoos exhibit a range of highly specialized adaptations to ex- Parental care must have a heritable basis to evolve, like any other target of selection. But parental care is also an environmental effect that shapes the conditions offspring experience during their development. These transgenerational parental effects can have lasting consequences for trait expression, including the possibility of epigenetic modifications in offspring behavior that are heritable and transmitted to future generations. The complexity of genetic bases of traits expressed in families has a number of interesting consequences for parent-offspring coevolution. Why do animal families (including humans) typically show considerable variation in the level and duration of parental care and in the intensity with which offspring demand care from the parent and compete with siblings? If resources are plentiful, parents can provide all the necessary food for their offspring at relatively low costs. In this case, parental provisioning rate will be high, and as a consequence, offspring resource demand will be low. In contrast, if resources are scarce, provisioning rate will be low-because food is difficult to find-and insufficient for optimal offspring growth, which will lead to high offspring demand. Recent experimental research shows that variation in parental care may also reflect genetic variation between families in how parents and offspring interact.
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