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STUDENT DIGITAL NEWSLETTER ALAGAPPA INSTITUTIONS |
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Nalaka Sudheera Gooneratne, MD, MSc, ABSM
Their participation helps to ensure that the big picture-how the organization fits within its larger community of interest-is considered anxiety keeping me up at night purchase effexor xr 37.5 mg fast delivery, along with key competitive and environmental factors anxiety symptoms night sweats buy effexor xr 37.5mg lowest price. By bringing their experience and professional talents to appropriate parts of the planning process anxiety 9 year old boy discount effexor xr 75mg with amex, by asking good questions of other participants anxiety breathing generic effexor xr 75mg on-line, and by diligently demonstrating that the governing board takes planning seriously anxiety symptoms night sweats order effexor xr 150mg line, board members add a great deal to the process anxiety loss of appetite effexor xr 75 mg lowest price. There are nearly as many opinions about planning and how it should be done as there are different sizes and shapes and missions of organizations, both forprofit and not-for profit. Each organization should determine its own approach to planning, based on the needs and life cycle of the organization. Governance Roles 35 Ensuring the Necessary Resources Once the board has established a sense of direction, it must make sure that the organization has four principal types of resources for achieving its goals: board members with appropriate competencies, people to do the work, money to pay salaries and other expenses, and credibility with the public on whose support the organization will depend. Build a Competent Board A nonprofit board represents talent that the organization can draw on to further its mission. Many boards revitalize themselves through term limits and a well-defined process for recruitment that assesses future organizational needs and current board member competencies. They seek diversity in terms of personal and professional backgrounds and experiences, and they welcome differing voices and an array of perspectives. They are acutely aware of the need for members who have knowledge of the nonprofit sector, superior financial acumen, ability to secure funding, and personal characteristics and experiences that positively enrich group interaction. They also use board composition as a strategy to increase understanding of their constituencies and community needs. Board composition matters if others are to see the organization as a responsible and civic-minded enterprise in the service of all people. Most boards delegate recruitment, orientation, and ongoing education to a committee-usually called the governance committee-whose purview extends beyond nominations to board development. Along with the chief executive, they recruit candidates to strengthen board capacity in terms of expertise and group dynamics. Recruitment is continuous, with individual members sharing responsibility for identifying and cultivating new candidates. They consciously and conscientiously inform candidates and new members of their responsibilities and expectations. It follows that clarifying expectations for individual board members before they are asked to join the board can greatly influence how energetic and effective they are likely to be. Recognizing the importance of board leadership development and succession planning, governance committee members also groom board chairs and officers purposefully through a transparent, participatory process. Fresh perspectives energize the work of nonprofit boards; in contrast, closed groups within the board risk the opposite effect. Boards should not hesitate to remove ineffective members to maintain a sense of shared responsibility. They can also find creative alternatives-such as membership in committees, task forces, and advisory councils-for keeping valuable members associated with the organization after their terms expire. Chapter Six, Building a Board, outlines the cycle of recruitment, orientation, and ongoing education. When new members join the board, pass the baton to them, using their unique strengths to advance the mission. Plan for the continuing contribution of those rotating off the board who still wish to be involved with the social and philanthropic goals of the organization. Exhibit courage, flexibility, and willingness to change as challenges and opportunities emerge. With the right person in the position, the organization will be better equipped to succeed. The process of choosing a new chief executive begins well before the search itself. Especially in large and complex organizations, board leaders should remain open to the idea of identifying, developing, and promoting promising talent from within-and even encourage it, to provide a wider pool of candidates. On the other hand, the board should not conclude too quickly that internal promotion is the only possible course of action. When done properly-with the full commitment and assistance of the current chief executive-the odds of making a smooth transition to new leadership increase dramatically. Although the committee takes the lead, the full board should be kept well informed as the search proceeds. It is up to the board to engage with management to develop and monitor a portfolio of income streams, which may range from fundraising and sponsorship, to earned income and for-profit subsidiaries, to program-related and market investments. The board also establishes clear expectations for member participation in development activities and individual giving. Members not only make personally meaningful annual contributions but also stretch further for special campaigns. They extend the reach of the organization by actively using their own reputations and networks to secure funds, expertise, and access. In raising private support, the board works in partnership with the chief executive and the director of development (if the organization has one). Specifically, the board should assess its own involvement in meeting fundraising targets and goals and should have clear obligations regarding personal philanthropy. In addition to being able to report 100-percent board participation to potential and current supporters, board members are better fundraisers when they set their own good example. The board should also be ready to help open doors, when they can, to secure resources. They can assist staff by identifying potential donors, helping to solicit support, and thanking donors and maintaining cordial relationships with them. Resource development is a function of the full board, not just its development committee. Constituents, members, and clients are invaluable resources that help to bring useful information back to the organization. The executive staff and board Governance Roles 39 leaders should welcome feedback, suggestions for improving what board members do, ideas for doing some things better, even complaints or concerns. There is no substitute for enthusiastic, even passionate board members who always manage to insert something wonderful about the organization into conversations with friends and colleagues. Board members should also remember that whatever they say about the organization carries great weight, whether intended or not. Thus confidential information must be protected as confidential, even from close friends and relatives. People want to know that somebody is checking to be sure that the organization is making a difference and that resources are being used wisely. The board chair has an especially important responsibility, as does the chief executive, to provide the board with the bad news as well as the good. Again, there can only be one chief executive and one chair of the board; their respective responsibilities should not be confused. Protect Assets and Provide Financial Oversight Safeguarding organizational assets, or holding them "in trust" on behalf of others, is one of the most important board functions. The board ensures that the organization has a clear financial plan that is aligned with strategic, operating, and development or philanthropic grantmaking plans. Linking budgeting to strategic planning, it approves activities that can be realistically financed with existing or attainable resources. For more about the finance and audit committees, see Chapter Four, Governance Structure, and Chapter Eight, Financial Oversight. Board members must understand the issues important to financial integrity and solvency, safeguards and procedures to protect the organization, and signs of financial trouble. That means knowing how to read and understand the financial information-such as distinguishing the important numbers and relationships- and, most important, making decisions based on the information. Financial information is not the only type of information used in decision making. But it plays an essential part in all important decisions, even those that may, at first glance, appear nonfinancial in nature (for example, should the organization keep its clinic open an extra hour in the evening so people can get there after work In 2002, after several high-profile instances of corporate financial mismanagement, the U. For the most part, this law does not impose legal requirements on nonprofits (though two parts of it do; see Chapter Eight for more information). But its passage profoundly influenced debate and discussion about the practice of nonprofit governance. Several states have proposed or passed regulations that extend some provisions of the SarbanesOxley Act to nonprofit organizations. For instance, the California Nonprofit Integrity Act of 2004 requires charities with gross revenues of $2 million or more to have an audit committee. Many of the provisions of the federal SarbanesOxley Act-especially those related to internal controls-are generally good practices for nonprofits to adopt, because doing so enhances financial reporting and accountability to stakeholders. Given limited dollars and unlimited demands on them, the board ultimately decides among competing priorities. What the organization actually does, and how well it does it, should be at the heart of board curiosity. These indicators include the number of clients served, number of attendees at particular events, the extent to which program participants achieved the desired results, revenues and expenditures for individual services, and changes in behaviors or conditions over the long term. Because most volunteer, nonprofit, and tax-exempt organizations do not have board members who are program experts, professional service providers, or practitioners, they usually hire qualified staff to execute programs and gather such data. At times, these different roles of board and staff can become confused-particularly when board members of small organizations must, of necessity, volunteer extensively to conduct and manage programs. In particular, membership-based professional societies and trade associations often struggle with where to draw the line between staff and board functions because their board members are usually practitioners in the field the organization serves. Ensure Legal and Ethical Integrity Because the board is ultimately responsible for ensuring adherence to legal standards and ethical norms, its members must collectively exhibit diligence, 44 the Handbook of Nonprofit Governance commitment, and vigilance to keep their house in order. This board responsibility, like several others, begins with hiring and retaining a chief executive whose moral compass and integrity are above reproach. Organizations should document how executive compensation is linked to performance, and they should keep records about what other peer and other similar-sized organizations pay their top staff officers. Clear policies and procedures should be in place for destruction of documents, gifts from vendors and suppliers, and competitive bids for products and services. The organization should publish annual reports, and it should respond willingly to requests for information from individuals and organizations, including the media. Board members should also familiarize themselves with the wide range of questions asked on Internal Revenue Service Form 990, which is a public document and available to any citizen who requests it (for information about Form 990, see Chapter Seven, Legal and Ethical Responsibilities). Although the board sets and periodically assesses the adequacy of major organizational policy, accountability measures will ordinarily and appropriately fall to management. Individual Roles While the board as a whole has certain roles and responsibilities, the board is, after all, composed of individuals. These individuals (board member, board chair, chief executive, other board officers, and former board members) each play a part in ensuring that the board functions effectively; their roles are explored in the following sections. It can be helpful to ask leading peer organizations with similar missions for copies of what they have developed. As an alternative, the list of responsibilities in this chapter (see sidebar on next page) can serve as a framework. First, when recruiting new board members, it helps to clarify what the organization expects before candidates accept the invitation to be nominated. Second, it can provide criteria 46 the Handbook of Nonprofit Governance for identifying and recruiting prospective nominees and reviewing the performance of current board members who are eligible for reelection or reappointment. Never speak for the board or organization unless authorized to do so, but also remember that all utterances from board members carry great weight with those within and outside of the organization. Bring back concerns, ideas, suggestions, and compliments when you believe they have merit or possibility. Visionary leaders attract followers and motivate people, focus on the big issues, make effectiveness a top objective, have the capability to set direction, and are willing to take calculated risks. A visionary leader empowers the board to move forward and to build organizational capacity. He or she understands that the board chair role is not about serving personal ego and preference. The board chair must be knowledgeable about the organization-its mission, vision, values, programs, services, constituents, and resources-and understand its place in the larger framework of the community and the still-larger sphere of local and national peer organizations. With a respect for and understanding of the organization, the context for the board chair role emerges. The role incorporates exhibiting leadership skills (how the chair carries out the duties) and adhering to strong governance practices (what duties are expected). The following list works as a board chair job description incorporating this dual focus.
Three major ideological tenets stand out as justifying and facilitating the European conquests anxiety books best effexor xr 37.5mg. The first anxiety 7 cups of tea effexor xr 150 mg amex, most prominent in the British realm (especially the United States anxiety symptoms head pressure purchase effexor xr 37.5mg line, Canada anxiety symptoms mimic heart attack order effexor xr 37.5 mg mastercard, and Australasia) anxiety disorder nos 3000 discount 37.5 mg effexor xr with mastercard, was a legal-utilitarian justification anxiety symptoms on one side of body discount effexor xr 150 mg with mastercard, according to which native peoples had no right to territories they inhabited, owing to their "failure" to exploit them adequately. Under the influence of the most modern scientific thinking of the age, world history was viewed as revolving around the inevitable, sometimes lamentable supplanting of primitive peoples by more advanced and "civilized" ones. This would be engineered both by human hands, through military confrontations between indigenous peoples and better-armed Europeans, and "naturally" through a gradual dying-off of the native populations. Take this passage by the English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, who shares credit with Charles Darwin for the theory of natural selection: the red Indian in North America and in Brazil; the Tasmanian, Australian, and New Zealander in the southern hemisphere, die out, not from any one special cause, but from the inevitable effects of an unequal mental and physical struggle. The intellectual and moral, as well as the physical qualities of the European are superior; the same powers and capacities which have made him rise in a few centuries from the condition of the wandering savage. But it is interesting that Wallace depicts the European conquerors as analogous to "weeds. Wallace was in fact an "anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist,"9 hence the critical edge to his commentary. But like some contemporary observers (a couple of whom are cited in the section on "Celebrating genocide, denying genocide," below), Wallace found little difficulty in reconciling the extermination of native peoples with his progressive political views. There is a close link between extinction discourse and the more virulent and systematically hateful ideologies that fueled the Nazi holocaust in Europe (Box 6a). The Nazis, writes Sven Lindqvist provocatively, "have been made sole scapegoats for ideas of extermination that are actually a common European heritage. Especially in Australia, these settlers became key instruments of genocide against the indigenous inhabitants of the territories to which they were consigned. Song of the Luiseno Indians of California the European holocaust against indigenous peoples in the Americas was arguably the most extensive and destructive genocide of all time. Ward Churchill calls it "unparalleled in human history, both in terms of its sheer magnitude and its duration. Rumors of great civilizations, limitless wealth, and populations to convert to Christianity in the Aztec and Inca empires lured the Spanish on to Mexico and Central America. Soon thereafter, assaults were launched against the Inca empire in present-day Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. At the time, the Incas constituted the largest empire anywhere in the world, but with their leader Atahuallpa captured and killed, the empire was decapitated, and quickly fell. According to David Stannard, Indians in the Bolivian mines had a life expectancy of three to four months, "about the same as that of someone working at slave labor in the synthetic rubber manufacturing plant at Auschwitz in the 1940s"21 (see figure 3. Only in the mid-sixteenth century did the exterminatory impact of Spanish rule begin to wane, and Indian populations to stage something of a demographic recovery. A modus vivendi was established between colonizers and colonized, featuring continued heavy exploitation of remaining Indian populations, but also a degree of practical autonomy for native peoples. It survived until the mid-nineteenth century, when the now-independent governments of Spanish America sought to implement the liberal economic prescriptions that were popular in Europe. This resulted in another massive assault on "uneconomic" Indian landholdings, the further erosion of the Indian land base and impoverishment of its population, and the "opening up" of both land and labor resources to capitalist transformation. Meanwhile, in South America as in North America, expansionist governments launched "Indian wars" against native nations that were seen as impediments to economic development and national progress. Following the discovery of silver in the mid-sixteenth century, this lone mountain largely paid for the profligacy and foreign wars of the Spanish Crown for some two hundred years. By some estimates, the mines killed seven out of every ten people who worked there. The United States and Canada the first sustained contact between Europeans and the indigenous peoples of North America developed around the whaling industry that, in the sixteenth century, began to cross the Atlantic in search of new bounty. Whaling crews put ashore to process the catch, and were generally welcomed by the coastal peoples. The settlers, though, responded to this amity with contempt for the "heathen" Indians. An example of the latter was the extermination of the great herds of bison, which were hunted into near extinction by the settlers. Perhaps sixty million of them roamed the Great Plains when Europeans arrived on the continent; "by 1895 there were fewer than 1,000 animals left," and this "had not only driven [the Indians] to starvation and defeat but had destroyed the core of their spiritual and ceremonial world. According to Russell Thornton, though direct slaughter was a subsidiary cause of Native American demographic collapse, it was decisive in the trajectories of some Indian nations "brought to extinction or the brink of extinction by. I also heard of numerous instances in which men had cut out the private parts of females and stretched them over their saddle-bows and wore them over their hats while riding in the ranks. The following year there began the California Gold Rush, "probably the single most destructive episode in the whole history of Native/Euro-American relations. Weller "granted state commissions to companies of volunteers that excelled in the killing of Indians. Ross Browne, subsequently wrote: In the history of the Indian race, I have seen nothing so cruel or relentless as the treatment of those unhappy people by the authority constituted by law for their protection. Instead of receiving aid and succor they have been starved and driven away from the Reservations and then followed into the remote hiding places where they have sought to die in peace, cruelly slaughtered until that [sic] a few are left and that few without hope. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease. Then there were the so-called "residential schools," in which generations of Indian children were incarcerated after being removed from their homes and families. The schools operated until very recent times; the last one in the United States was not closed until 1972. In a searing account of the residential-school experience, titled "Genocide by Any Other Name," Ward Churchill describes the program as the linchpin of assimilationist aspirations. However, there was much that was genocidal in the operation of the North American residential schools apart from the "forcible transfer" of the captive native children. In a follow-up survey conducted in 1909, Bryce collected additional information, all of it corroborating his initial report. For example, the extraordinarily high level of alcoholism among native peoples in North America was often explained in terms of an assumed genetic disposition or debility. Now, it is increasingly understood to reflect the "worlds of pain" inflicted by residential schooling, and the traumas inflicted in turn by traumatized Indians upon their own children. These were aimed at promoting successful capitalist modernization in Guatemala, not socialist revolution. In just six years, some 440 Indian villages were obliterated and some 200,000 Indians massacred, often after torture, in scenes fully comparable to the early phase of Spanish colonization half a millennium earlier. It ascribed to the government and its paramilitary allies responsibility for 93 percent of the human rights violations it investigated and reported; most of these "occurred with the knowledge or by the order of the highest authorities of the State. All Maya had been designated as supporters of communism and terrorism, the report noted, leading to "aggressive, racist and extremely cruel. Genocide in Australia In 1788, the "First Fleet" of British convicts was dumped on Australian soil. As in North America, the colonists did not arrive in Australia with the explicit intention of exterminating the Aborigines. The massive destruction inflicted on Australian Aborigines instead reflected a concatenation of ideologies, pressures, and circumstances. Arriving whites were aghast at the primitive state of the Aborigines, and quickly determined that they were (1) barely, if at all, human47 and (2) utterly useless to the colonial enterprise. Aboriginal lands, however, were coveted, particularly as convicts began to be freed (but not allowed to return to England) and as new waves of free settlers arrived during the nineteenth century. As the Australian colonial economy came to center on vast landholdings for sheep-raising and cattle-grazing, the standard trend of expansion into the interior brought colonists into ever-wider and more conflictive contact with the Aborigines. Indeed, the original instructions to colonial Governor Arthur Phillip were that he "endeavour by every means in his power to open an intercourse with the natives and to conciliate their goodwill, requiring all persons under his Government to live in amity and kindness with them. There, they were prey to further bouts of disease and chronic malnutrition, to which the Europeans and their leaders responded with indifference. This appears to have been true for full-blooded aboriginals, the last of whom, a woman named Truganini, died in 1876. In response to growing protest about these "stolen generations" of aboriginal children (the title of a landmark 1982 book by Peter Read),54 a national commission of inquiry was struck in 1995. State governments, churches, mission societies, city and shire councils proclaim both sorrow and apology. Genocide is now in the vocabulary of Australian politics, albeit grudgingly, or even hostilely. Drawn by the opportunities for cattle ranching, some 5,000 Germans had flooded into the territory by 1903. Herero chief Samuel Maherero led his fighters against military outposts, killing about 120 Germans. In it, he pledged that "within the German borders every Herero, with or without a gun, with or without cattle, will be shot. I will no longer accept women and children [as prisoners], I will drive them back to their people or I will let them be shot at. A contemporary account describes Hereros emerging from the Kalahari "starved to skeletons with hollow eyes, powerless and hopeless. Many scholars accordingly refer to the Namibian events as the genocide of the Hereros and Namas. As summarized by Madley: the Herero genocide was a crucial antecedent to Nazi mass murder. Like Nazi mass murder, the Namibian genocides were premised upon ideas like Lebensraum [living space], annihilation war [Vernichtungskrieg], and German racial supremacy. Hermann Goering, who built the first Nazi concentration camps, was the son of the first governor of colonial Namibia. Why, asked Herero leaders, was Germany willing to pay tens of billions of dollars to Jewish survivors of Nazi genocide, but not even to acknowledge crimes against the Hereros The minister issued a formal apology that included the "G-word": "We Germans accept our historic and moral responsibility and the guilt incurred by Germans at that time. These are sadly not uncommon responses, and they are nowhere more prominent than with regard to genocides of indigenous peoples. Celebrations of indigenous genocide also have no clear parallel in mainstream discourse. Thus one finds prominent essayist Christopher Hitchens describing protests over the Columbus quincentenary as "an ignorant celebration of stasis and backwardness, with an unpleasant tinge of self-hatred. The transformation of part of the northern part of this continent into "America" inaugurated a nearly boundless epoch of opportunity and innovation, and thus deserves to be celebrated with great vim and gusto, with or without the participation of those who wish they had never been born. Note, for example, the practice of adopting ersatz Indian names and motifs for professional sports teams. If this standard is adopted, there is nothing in recorded human experience to set alongside the genocide of the indigenous peoples in the Americas. It lasted longer, and destroyed a greater percentage and possibly a greater total number of victims, than any genocide in history. But in most or perhaps all cases, this accounted for a minority of deaths among the colonized peoples. The forced-labor institutions of Spanish America also demonstrated a high degree of conscious intent. The mechanisms of death were not appreciably different from those of many Nazi slave-labor camps. There is little doubt about the genocidal intent underlying conscious biological warfare against Indian nations. A lesser but still substantial degree of intent also featured in the numerous cases where disease was exacerbated by malnutrition, overwork, and outright enslavement. In addition, many of the connections between hygiene, overcrowding, and the spread of disease were poorly understood for much of the period of the attack on indigenous peoples. Genocide studies emphasizes the role of the state as the central agent of genocide, and one certainly finds a great deal of state-planned, state-sponsored, and state-directed killing of indigenous peoples. In many and perhaps most cases, however, the direct perpetrators of genocide were colonial settlers rather than those in authority.
The Aztecs so ravaged and alienated surrounding nations that these subjects enthusiastically joined with invading Spanish forces to destroy them anxiety symptoms go away order 37.5 mg effexor xr overnight delivery. This pattern of collaboration with the conquering force anxiety journal prompts cheap 150 mg effexor xr with amex, often arising from and exacerbating the tensions of indigenous international relations anxiety symptoms menopause discount effexor xr 37.5mg amex, was quite common throughout the hemisphere anxiety symptoms tinnitus 75 mg effexor xr amex. Reference has already been made (Chapter 1) to subaltern genocide anxiety vs fear cheap effexor xr 37.5 mg on-line, in which oppressed peoples adopt genocidal strategies against their oppressors anxiety centre purchase effexor xr 37.5mg without a prescription. Latin America offers several notable examples, studied in detail by Nicholas Robins in his book Native Insurgencies and the Genocidal Impulse in the Americas. I believe we can sympathize with the enormous and often mortal pressure placed upon indigenous peoples, while still recognizing that a genocidal counter-strategy sometimes resulted. No less than in past periods, however, invasion and attempted domination have fueled indigenous resistance. In recent decades, for the first time, this has assumed the form of a global mobilization of indigenous peoples. The "indigenous revival" is closely linked to movements for decolonization that transformed world politics in the twentieth century. Decolonization brought to fruition the pledges of self-determination that had featured in the charter of the League of Nations, but had withered in the face of opposition from colonial powers such as Britain, France, and the Netherlands. What of societies that were or had become formally independent as nation-states, but where a "pigmentocracy" of (usually) white people ruled over masses of displaced, exploited, and marginalized indigenous peoples As Ronald Niezen points out, the horrors of the Nazi era in Europe "contributed to a greater receptiveness at the international level to measures for the protection of minorities," given the increasing recognition "that states could not always be relied upon to protect their own citizens, that states could even pass laws to promote domestic policies of genocide. Attending a session of the working group, Mick Dodson, an Australian aboriginal representative, described his dawning recognition that "We were all part of a world community of Indigenous peoples spanning the planet; experiencing the same problems and struggling against the same alienation, marginalisation and sense of powerlessness. At the national level, the impact of these movements is increasingly far-reaching. Indigenous peoples in Ecuador and Bolivia have "converged in mass mobilizations, breathtaking in their scale and determination," that overthrew governments and ushered in "a new revolutionary moment in which indigenous actors have acquired the leading role. The Zapatistas have since established substantial local autonomy in their zone of control. This is a combination familiar to indigenous peoples worldwide, and a basis for the claim, advanced by some, that genocide continues today. First published in 1971, and still the classic introduction to the native North American experience. Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present. A solid introduction, especially good on the Second World War and the postwar era. Richard Drinnon, Facing West: the Metaphysics of Indian Hating and Empire Building. Francis Jennings, the Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest. First published in 1966, this remains a moving introduction to the devastation of Pacific indigenous peoples. Ronald Niezen, the Origins of Indigenism: Human Rights and the Politics of Identity. Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. Foundational text on the demographic impact of European conquest and colonization. Daniel Wilkinson, Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala. Examines the conquest throughout the Western hemisphere from the perspective of its victims. Twedt, "Physical and Cultural Genocide of Various Indigenous Peoples," in Samuel Totten et al. Coates, A Global History of Indigenous Peoples: Struggle and Survival (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. Fenn, "Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst," the Journal of American History, 86: 4 (March 2000), pp. Stannard, American Holocaust: the Conquest of the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. Bartrop, "Punitive Expeditions and Massacres: Gippsland, Colorado, and the Question of Genocide," in A. For a detailed account, see John Ehle, Trail of Tears: the Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation (New York: Doubleday, 1988). From his eight years in the White House, there is no historical indication that he was troubled by the bloodbath and even genocide that occurred in Central America during his presidency, while he was shipping hundreds of millions of dollars in military aid to the implicated forces. Very little of this surfaced in the nauseating encomiums to Reagan following his death in 2004. Inaction despite clear warnings and high mortality rates suggests that population decline was government policy, or was considered preferable to returning the survivors to their homes. In 1836 the commander of Launceston visited Flinders Island and warned that if conditions were not improved, `the race of Tasmania. In fact, they operated Flinders Island with virtually no policy amendments for over a decade, until closing the reserve in 1847. On their first North American tour, an aboriginal band, Yothu Yindi, memorably opened the show. The lead singer of "The Oils," Peter Garrett (a lawyer by training), was elected a Labor Member of Parliament in the 2004 federal election. Von Trotha quoted in Jan-Bart Gewald, "Imperial Germany and the Herero of Southern Africa: Genocide and the Quest for Recompense," in Jones, ed. Andrew Meldrum, "German Minister Says Sorry for Genocide in Namibia," Guardian, August 16, 2004. In academia, the denialist position is associated with scholars such as Steven Katz, Guenter Lewy, William Rubinstein, and (in Australia) Keith Windschuttle. Alexander Bielakowski, post to H-Genocide, September 26, 2001; see my response of the same date in the H-Genocide archives, h-net. Michael Burleigh, Ethics and Extermination: Reflections on Nazi Genocide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. Christopher Hitchens, "Minority Report," the Nation, October 19, 1992, emphasis added. I now believe that this outlook represented a deep failure of moral imagination on my part. See Tzvetan Todorov, the Conquest of America: the Question of the Other (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992), pp. The Origins of the Genocidal Moment in the Colonization of Australia," Journal of Genocide Research, 2: 1 (2000), pp. He called for "the most energetic measures on the part of the settlers themselves," though adding that "the use of arms is in no case to be resorted to until other measures for driving them off have failed. Nash: "The nature of pre-contact Indian war was far different than the wars known in Europe, both in duration and in scale of operations. Unlike the Europeans, Native Americans could not conceive of total war that was fought for months or even years, that did not spare non-combatants, and that involved the systematic destruction of towns and food supplies. Wars among Indians were conducted more in the manner of short forays, with small numbers of warriors engaging the enemy and one or the other side withdrawing after a few casualties had been inflicted. Blick, "Genocidal Warfare in Tribal Societies as a Result of European-induced Culture Conflict," Man, New Series, 23: 4 (1988), p. Conditions among Australian aboriginals are strikingly similar: this group "ended the twentieth century at the very top, or bottom, of every social indicator available. In both pre-modern and contemporary incarnations, these states have proved willing to use imperial and colonial strategies against indigenous peoples within their reach. As with Western imperialism, the enterprise has regularly spawned genocidal atrocities. We should distinguish at the outset between two versions of Tibet that are often confused. This constitutes barely half the territory of ethnic Tibet, while the more populous territories of "Outer Tibet" (including Amdo and Kham) are mostly divided between the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Qinghai. Although home to about half of all ethnic Tibetans, these provinces are populated by a Han Chinese majority, and the demographic disproportion is increasing. Tibet was authoritarian, with a powerful monastic class that exacted high taxes from the laboring population. In addition, the system was not truly feudal: peasants "had a legal identity, often with documents stating their rights, and also had access to courts of law," including "the right to sue their masters. During the Nationalist era, as noted above, Tibet was claimed but not administered by China. With rationales that ranged from bringing civilization to the natives, to the need to counter moves by American "hegemonists," the Chinese government invaded and partially occupied Tibet in October 1950. In May 1951, China imposed a punitive treaty for the "peaceful liberation" of the entire country. They used it to impose communist measures such as collectivization of agriculture. Rebellion against the measures was swift and violent among the Tibetans of the east. The Chinese responded with much greater violence, killing thousands of Tibetans and incarcerating tens of thousands under brutal and torturous conditions. When the spark of rebellion reached central Tibet, in 1959, it launched a general uprising that the Chinese rapidly moved to suppress. In scenes that evoke the proceedings in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge (see Chapter 7), communist cadres denounced, tortured, and frequently executed "enemies of the people. The Tibetan insurgency was a direct response to the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, two communist campaigns that turned China upside down and killed millions or tens of millions. In 1958, Mao announced the Great Leap, designed to accomplish in China what Stalin achieved in the Soviet Union: industrialize a peasant nation in short order. Deluded by fantasies of agricultural "science" and peasant industrial potential, the communist authorities announced massive grain surpluses. The surpluses were a fiction; local authorities told the central authority what it wanted to hear. Toiling at high, frozen altitudes and with minimal food rations, tens of thousands of Tibetans died in the first half of the 1960s, in conditions that rivaled the worst outposts of the Soviet Gulag. According to Jean-Louis Margolin, "it appears that very few people (perhaps as few as 2 percent) ever returned alive from the 166 known camps, most of which were in Tibet or the neighboring provinces. The second Chinese campaign to devastate Tibet was the "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution," unleashed in 1966. In Tibet, the epitome of "reaction" and "feudalism," persecution and destruction occurred on a vast scale: From July 1966 onwards, Red Guards [communist militants] began the systematic destruction of Tibetan civilization. The historic monastery-towns of Drepung, once the largest such Tibetan town with 10,000 monks, and Ganden, with 3000 monks, were obliterated. Statues, scriptures and ritual objects were smashed, taken away or thrown into bonfires that burned for days. Religious and cultural practices including folk fairs, festivals and traditional songs were banned. Religious leaders were branded as "reactionary demons" and the Dalai Lama as a "bandit and a traitor. Mao Zedong died in 1976, and the extremist phase of the Chinese revolution passed with him. Hundreds of monks and nuns have been arrested, and thousands more expelled from their institutions. Tibetan resistance continued beneath the surface, occasionally breaking out into open revolt. In March 1989 there occurred "the largest anti-Chinese demonstration in [Lhasa] since 1959. Shakya describes the atmosphere in the wake of this outbreak as one of "general malaise" characterized by "a near-universal enmity towards the Chinese" on the part of ethnic Tibetans. These acts constitute the crime of genocide under the Genocide Convention of the United Nations of 1948. Tsering Shakya, the Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. The autonomy of Outer Tibet was recognised and China agreed to abstain from interference in its internal administration which was to rest with Tibetans themselves.
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