Shawn Anderson, PharmD, BCACP

• Clinical Pharmacy Specialist-Cardiology
• NF/SG Veterans Medical Center
• Adjunct Clinical Assistant Professor
• College of Pharmacy University of Florida

In order for an offer in the form of a promise to become enforceable symptoms 2dpo buy naltrexone 50mg on-line, it must be accepted medicine vocabulary order naltrexone 50mg on line. Acceptance will depend on what the promisor bargained for: he may have bargained for a return promise that symptoms liver cancer cheap naltrexone 50 mg online, if given symptoms diagnosis naltrexone 50 mg with visa, would result in a bilateral contract medicine 19th century generic 50 mg naltrexone otc, both promises becoming enforceable medications japan travel order naltrexone 50 mg overnight delivery. Or he may have bargained for some action or nonaction that, if given or withheld, would render his promise enforceable as a unilateral contract. It is reasonable to interpret it as seeking continued work from the employees, who, in most cases, are free to quit since they are almost always employees at will, not simply in the sense that the employer can fire them without cause, but in the sense that they can quit without breaching any obligation. It would be unfair to allow an employer to distribute a policy manual that makes the workforce believe that certain promises have been made and then to allow the employer to renege on those promises. What is sought here is basic honesty: if the employer, for whatever reason, does not want the manual to be capable of being construed by the court as a binding contract, there are simple ways to attain that goal. What did Woolley do to show his acceptance of the terms of employment offered to him It is making case law, and the rule here articulated governs similar future cases in New Jersey. Why is it relevant that the court says it would be easy for an employer to avoid this problem In the capitalistic system, people make choices about how to interact with others, and-necessarily-those choices expressed as promises must be binding and enforceable. The two fundamental sources of contract law are (1) the common law as developed in the state courts and as summarized in the Restatement (Second) of Contracts and (2) the Uniform Commercial Code for the sale of goods. Types of contracts can be distinguished by four criteria: (1) express and implied, including quasi-contracts implied by law; (2) bilateral and unilateral; (3) enforceable and unenforceable; and (4) completed (executed) and uncompleted (executory). To understand contract law, it is necessary to master these distinctions and their nuances. Smith became ill, the Smiths asked a friend, Henrietta, to help with various housekeeping chores, including cleaning and cooking. Although the Smiths never promised to pay her, Henrietta performed the chores for eighteen months. Henrietta now claims that she is entitled to the reasonable value of the services performed. After eighteen months, Caroline claims she is entitled to the reasonable value of the services performed. Upon investigation he discovered that the rash was due to an improper chemical compound in Sansfree. If Roscoe filed a breach of contract action against the barber, would the case be governed by the Uniform Commercial Code or common law Rachel entered into a contract to purchase a 2004 Dodge from Hanna, who lived in the neighboring apartment. When a dispute arose over the terms of the contract, Hanna argued that, because neither she nor Rachel was a merchant, the dispute should be decided under general principles of common law. Rachel, on the other hand, argued that Hanna was legally considered to be a merchant because she sold the car for profit and that, consequently, the sale was governed by the Uniform Commercial Code. When they set up house, Michelle gave up her career, and Lee promised to share his earnings with her on a fifty-fifty basis. Harry and Wilma were divorced in 2008, and Harry was ordered in the divorce decree to pay his ex-wife $10,000. He and Wilma discussed the matter, and Wilma agreed to pay the bill with her own money, even though Harry still owed her $5,000 from the divorce decree. When Harry died in late 2010, Wilma made a claim against his estate for $8,000 (the $3,000 in medical bills and the $5,000 from the decree), but the estate was only willing to pay the $5,000 from the decree, claiming she had paid the hospital bill voluntarily and had no contract for repayment. Louie, an adult, entered into a contract to sell a case of scotch whiskey to Leroy, a minor. A reward of $500 will be paid for information given by any employee that leads to the apprehension of employee thieves. I promise to watch other employees and provide you with the requested information. Almost every day Sally took a break at lunch and went to the International News Stand-a magazine store-to browse the newspapers and magazines and chat with the owner, Conrad. Joan called Devon Sand & Gravel and ordered two "boxes" (dump-truck loads) of gravel to be spread on her rural driveway by the "shoot and run" method: the tailgate is partially opened, the dump-truck bed is lifted, and the truck moves down the driveway spreading gravel as it goes. She took it home and spent $150 repairing and painting it, after which Carl appeared and proved his ownership of it. My brother is going to cut some trees on my side, and he can do yours too for free. How an offer is accepted, who can accept it, and when acceptance is effective In this chapter, we begin the first of the four broad inquiries of contract law mentioned in Chapter 8 "Introduction to Contract Law": Did the parties create a valid contract The answer is not always obvious; the range of factors that must be taken into account can be large, and their relationships subtle. Since businesspeople frequently conduct contract negotiations without the assistance of a lawyer, it is important to attend to the nuances in order to avoid legal trouble at the outset. The Significance of Agreement the core of a legal contract is the agreement between the parties. This is not a necessary ingredient; in Communist nations, contracts were (or are, in the few remaining Communist countries) routinely negotiated between parties who had the terms imposed on them. But in the West, and especially in the United States, agreement is of the essence. As the great student of contract law Samuel Williston put it, "It was a consequence of the emphasis laid on the ego and the individual will that the formation of a contract should seem impossible unless the wills of the parties concurred. Accordingly we find at the end of the eighteenth century, and the beginning of the nineteenth century, the prevalent idea that there must be a "meeting of the minds" (a new phrase) in order to form a contract. Note, however, that not every agreement, in the broadest sense of the word, need consist of an offer and an acceptance, and that it is entirely possible, therefore, for two persons to reach agreement without forming a contract. For example, people may agree that the weather is pleasant or that it would be preferable to go out for Chinese food rather than to see a foreign film; in neither case has a contract been formed. One of the major functions of the law of contracts is to sort out those agreements that are legally binding-those that are contracts-from those that are not. The Objective Test In interpreting agreements, courts generally apply an objective standard (outwardly, as an observer would interpret; not subjectively). The Restatement (Second) of Contracts defines agreement as a "manifestation of mutual assent by two or more persons to one another. The distinction between objective and subjective standards crops up occasionally when one person claims he spoke in jest. The vice president of a company that manufactured punchboards, used in gambling, testified to the Washington State Game Commission that he would pay $100,000 to anyone who found a "crooked board. The company refused, claiming that the statement was made in jest (the audience at the commission hearing had laughed when the offer was made). It is the objective manifestations of the offeror that count and not secret, unexpressed intentions. It is not the unexpressed intention in the minds of the parties that determines whether there was "a meeting. For the purposes of determining whether a party had a contractual intention, why do courts employ an objective rather than a subjective test What is the relationship between "the emphasis laid on the ego and the individual will" in modern times (Williston) and the concept of the contractual agreement Understand the three essentials of an offer: intent, communication, and definiteness. But in a commercial society, the ways of making offers and accepting them are nearly infinite. All these situations can raise tricky questions, as can corresponding situations involving acceptances. The Definition of Offer the Restatement defines offer as "the manifestation of willingness to enter into a bargain, so made as to justify another person in understanding that his assent to that bargain is invited and will conclude it. Before considering these requirements, we examine the threshold question of whether an offer was intended. Proposals That Are Not Offers Advertisements Most advertisements, price quotations, and invitations to bid are not construed as offers. A notice in the newspaper that a bicycle is on sale for $800 is normally intended only as an invitation to the public to come to the store to make a purchase. Similarly, a statement that a seller can "quote" a unit price to a prospective purchaser is not, by itself, of sufficient definiteness to constitute an offer; quantity, time of delivery, and other important factors are missing from such a statement. Frequently, in order to avoid construction of a statement about price and quantity as an offer, a seller or buyer may say, "Make me an offer. Many forms used by sales representatives as contracts indicate that by signing, the customer is making an offer to be accepted by the home office and is not accepting an offer made by the sales representative. Although advertisements, price quotations, and the like are generally not offers, the facts in each case are important. Under the proper circumstances, an advertised statement can be construed as an offer, as shown in the well-known Lefkowitz case (Section 9. It is unlawful for a retail chain not to have an advertised item in each of its stores and in sufficient quantity, unless the advertisement specifically states how much is stocked and which branch stores do not carry it. An auctioneer does not make offers but solicits offers from the crowd: "May I have an offer Without mutual assent there cannot be a contract, and this implies that the assent each person gives must be with reference to that of the other. If Toni places several alternative offers on the table, only one of which can be accepted, and invites Sandy to choose, no contract is formed if Sandy says merely, "I accept your terms. From this general proposition, it follows that no contract can be legally binding unless an offer is in fact communicated to the offeree. If you write an e-mail to a friend with an offer to sell your car for a certain sum and then get distracted and forget to send it, no offer has been made. If your friend coincidentally emails you the following day and says that she wants to buy your car and names the same sum, no contract has been made. Her e-mail to you is not an acceptance, since she did not know of your offer; it is, instead, an offer or an invitation to make an offer. Nor would there have been a contract if you had sent your communication and the two e-mails crossed in cyberspace. The requirement that an offer be communicated does not mean that every term must be communicated. An offer of a reward constitutes a unilateral contract that can be made binding only by performing the task for which the reward is offered. Suppose that Bonnie posts on a tree a sign offering a reward for returning her missing dog. If you saw the sign, found the dog, and returned it, you would have fulfilled the essentials of the offer. But if you chanced upon the dog, read the tag around its neck, and returned it without ever having been aware that a reward was offered, then you have not responded to the offer, even if you acted in the hope that the owner would reward you. In many states, a different result follows from an offer of a reward by a governmental entity. Commonly, local ordinances provide that a standing reward of, say, $1,000 will be paid to anyone providing information that leads to the arrest and conviction of arsonists. To collect the reward, it is not necessary for a person who does furnish local authorities with such information to know that a reward ordinance exists. In contract terms, the standing reward is viewed as a means of setting a climate in which people will be encouraged to act in certain ways in the expectation that they will earn unknown rewards. It is also possible to view the claim to a reward as noncontractual; the right to receive it is guaranteed, instead, by the local ordinance. Although a completed act called for by an unknown private offer does not give rise to a contract, partial performance usually does. Suppose Apex Bakery posts a notice offering a one-week bonus to all bakers who work at least six months in the kitchen. Her original ignorance of the offer will not defeat her claim to the bonus if she continues working, for the offer serves as an inducement to complete the performance called for. Definiteness the common law reasonably requires that an offer spell out the essential proposed terms with sufficient definiteness-certainty of terms that enables a court to order enforcement or measure damages in the event of a breach. As it has often been put, "The law does not make contracts for the parties; it merely enforces the duties which they have undertaken" (Simpson, 1965, p. But not every omission is fatal; for example, as long as a missing term can be fixed by referring to some external standard-such as "no later than the first frost"-the offer is sufficiently definite. In major business transactions involving extensive negotiations, the parties often sign a preliminary "agreement in principle" before a detailed contract is drafted. These preliminary agreements may be definite enough to create contract liability even though they lack many of the terms found in a typical contract. For example, in a famous 1985 case, a Texas jury concluded that an agreement made "in principle" between the Pennzoil Company and the Getty Oil Company and not entirely finished was binding and that Texaco had unlawfully interfered with their contract. As a result, Texaco was held liable for over $10 billion, which was settled for $3 billion after Texaco went into bankruptcy. David offers Sheila the opportunity to buy one of two automobiles at a fixed price, with delivery in two months and the choice of vehicle left to David. If one of the cars is destroyed in the interval before delivery, David is obligated to deliver the other car. Sometimes, however, what appears to be an offer in the alternative may be something else. As part of the bargain, Charles agrees not to compete with Bernie for the next two years, and if he does, to pay $25,000. Whether this is an alternative contract depends on the circumstances and intentions of the parties.

Social psychologists have long emphasized the importance of equity medicine 606 50mg naltrexone with visa, or a balance of contributions and gains medications known to cause miscarriage purchase 50 mg naltrexone otc, to satisfaction in relationships (Walster medications of the same type are known as discount naltrexone 50 mg online, Walster treatment notes buy 50mg naltrexone mastercard, & Berscheid treatment cervical cancer buy generic naltrexone 50mg on line, 1978) treatment dynamics order 50 mg naltrexone mastercard. A person who receives more from a relationship than he gives is likely to feel guilty; a person who gives a great deal and receives little in return may feel angry or resentful. Consistent with equity theory, involvement in relationships in which the balance of emotional support given and received is unequal is associated with lower emotional well-being and more symptoms of depression than involvement in more balanced relationships (Keyes, 2002; Ramos & Wilmoth, 2003). Interestingly, overbenefited, or dependent, friends often experience more distress than underbenefited, or supportgiving, friends (Roberto & Scott, 1986). Being able to help other people, or at least to reciprocate help, tends to boost the self-esteem and reduce the depressive symptoms of elderly adults (Krause & Shaw, 2000; Ramos & Wilmoth, 2003). Perhaps because of gender-role norms, men who have a strong desire to be independent react especially negatively to receiving help (Nagumey, Reich, & Newsom, 2004). Perhaps because inequity threatens friendships, older adults usually call on family before friends when they need substantial help (Felton & Berry, 1992; Kendig et al. Adult Relationships and Adult Development We have emphasized throughout this chapter that close attachments to other people are essential to normal cognitive, social, and emotional development. In this approach, depressed or abusive parents are helped to understand how their internal working models (for example, lingering anger at a mother who was not there for them in childhood) affect their interactions with their infants and how they can improve those interactions. Children who are neglected or, worse, rejected by their peers are another group at risk of having relationship difficulties. They can be helped through coaching programs designed to teach them the social and social cognitive skills they lack (Bierman, 2004; Ladd, 1999). In social-skills coaching programs, an adult therapist models or displays social skills, explains why they are useful, allows children to practice them, and offers feedback to help children improve their skills. In a pioneering study, Sherrie Oden and Steven Asher (1977) coached third- and fourth-grade social isolates in how to play, how to take turns and share, how to communicate effectively, and how to provide attention and help to peers. Children who were coached developed more outgoing and positive social behavior and achieved gains in sociometric status within the classroom. For some individuals, though, the real problem is a restricted social environment rather than a lack of social skills (Rook, 1984, 1991). Such was the case for the socially isolated elderly people described by Marc Pilisuk and Meredith Minkler (1980). Living in inner-city hotels in San Francisco, these individuals were often prisoners in their rooms because of disability, poverty, and fear of crime. To change this situation, public health nurses began to offer free blood pressure checkups in the lobby of one hotel. As the nurses got to know the residents, they were able to draw them into conversations and to link individuals who had common interests. After about a year, the residents formed their own activities club; organized discussions, film showings, and parties; and were well on their way out of their social isolation. Programs in which home visitors befriend lonely elderly adults can also help (Andrews et al. The message may be this: To improve social relationships, change the individual, the social environment, or both as appropriate. How might knowledge of social relationships be applied to help humans develop more satisfying relationships across the life span As you have seen, parents who are likely to be insensitive to their infants, as well as infants who have difficult temperaments, are at risk for forming insecure attachments. Naturally there has been a good deal of interest in discovering how to help them form secure attachment bonds (Berlin, 2005). In one study (van den Boom, 1995), low-income mothers in Holland with irritable babies were given a series of three, 2-hour training sessions designed to make them more sensitive and responsive caregivers. Not only did the trained mothers become more sensitive caregivers, but their infants also were more likely than those of mothers who received no training to be able to soothe themselves when upset, to be securely attached at age 1, and to remain securely attached at age 3. It is now clear that parents can be trained in only a few sessions to be more sensitive caregivers and, as a result, to build more secure attachments with even learn, then, that adults are better off in many ways when they enjoy meaningful social relationships. Just as people can feel lonely despite being surrounded by other people, adults apparently can feel deprived of social support even though they receive a lot of it-or they can have restricted social networks yet be highly satisfied with their relationships. Men are particularly dependent on their spouses; women rely more on friends, siblings, and children for emotional support (Gurung, Taylor, & Seeman, 2003). Of concern is a recent finding that the percentage of adults in the United States who say they have no one with whom to discuss important matters increased from 10% in 1985 to almost 25% in 2004 and the number of confidants the average person had dropped from about three to two over this same time span (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, & Brashears, 2006). Also important to life satisfaction is whether interacting with close companions is rewarding or stressful (Krause, 1995). Perhaps because of their personality traits, people who have positive (or negative) interactions in one relationship tend to have similar experiences in other relationships, creating a constellation of supportive (or stressful) relationships (Krause & Rook, 2003). Relationships with spouses, children, or other significant companions can undermine rather than bolster emotional well-being if they involve mostly negative exchanges (Newsom et al. By contrast, both being socially isolated and feeling lonely, whether one is isolated or not, have been linked to cognitive decline and even to signs of dementia (Wilson et al. Susan Charles and Shahrzad Mavandadi (2004), noting that emotions and social relationships are closely linked throughout life starting in infancy, suggest that they may have evolved together. They go on to suggest that social relationships affect health and well-being through their effects, good or bad, on emotions and emotion regulation. Thus, separations from caregivers, abuse, and social deprivation raise stress hormone levels in infants and can disrupt neural development and make children more reactive to stress later in life (Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007). By contrast, warm, responsive parenting can help even infants who are highly emotionally reactive to stressors cope better, and close relationships later in life can help people keep their emotions in check and avoid stress-related illnesses (Charles & Mavandadi, 2004). Whatever the mechanisms, and whatever our ages, our well-being and development hinge considerably on the quality of our ties to our fellow humans-particularly on having a close emotional bond with at least one person. It is fitting, then, that we conclude this chapter by illustrating, in the Applications box, approaches to improving social relationships across the life span. Develop some alternative hypotheses about why young adults have larger social networks than elderly adults. Focusing on Pete the Preoccupied and Dwight the Dismissing, compare their behavior in past and current relationships and at work. The second world of childhood, the peer world, is believed to be especially important by Jean Piaget, who emphasized the reciprocal nature of peer relations, and Judith Rich Harris, who argues that children are socialized more by peers than by parents. Attachment figures arouse strong emotions, socialize emotions, and help infants regulate their emotions until they can develop their own emotion regulation strategies. Parents typically become attached to infants before or shortly after birth and parent and child quickly establish synchronized routines. Infants progress through phases of undiscriminating social responsiveness, discriminating social responsiveness, active proximity seeking, and goal-corrected partnership. The formation of a first attachment around 6 or 7 months is accompanied by separation anxiety and stranger anxiety, as well as by exploration from a secure base. Harry Harlow demonstrated that contact comfort is more important than feeding in attachment; secure attachments are also associated with sensitive, responsive parenting. Infant characteristics (temperament and achievement of person permanence) also contribute. Repeated long-term separations and social deprivation can make it difficult for an infant to form normal attachments, though recovery is evident. Secure attachments contribute to later cognitive and social competence, but attachment quality often changes over time, and insecurely attached infants are not doomed to a lifetime of poor relationships. Infants are interested in peers and become increasingly able to coordinate their own activity with that of their small companions; by 18 months, they participate in complementary interactive exchanges and form friendships. Adults continue to value friends, but disability and disease can introduce inequity into relationships, so older adults often turn first to family for help. Life satisfaction, physical health, and cognitive functioning are maintained better in old age when people have at least one close confidant to help them regulate their emotions. Physical attractiveness, cognitive ability, social competence, and emotion regulation skills contribute to popular-rather than rejected, neglected, or controversial-sociometric status. Children who are rejected by their peers or who have no friends are especially at risk for future problems. Although susceptibility to negative peer pressure peaks around age 14 or 15, peers are more often a positive than a negative force in development, unless poor relationships with parents lead to association with an antisocial crowd. Unique to this site are tables that describe how characteristics of each type of attachment are manifested in childhood and adulthood. Adult Attachment Lab this University of California at Davis-housed site contains links to many respected attachment research labs and numerous research publications on attachment. Adults have secure, preoccupied, dismissing, or fearful internal working models that appear to be rooted in their early attachment experiences and that affect their romantic relationships, approaches to work, attachments with their own children, and adjustment. Although adults are highly involved with their spouses or romantic partners, they continue to value friendships, especially long-lasting and equitable ones. Having at least one confidant has beneficial effects on life satisfaction, as well as on physical health and cognitive functioning. Online Dating Services Even those not looking for a date or a mate might be interested in the newest fad in dating, the online service. Of particular interest are the types of characteristics that each of the services uses to sort for potential partners. I look back at the divorce of my parents and I think it was a very important time in my life. For this college student, by contrast, divorce was a growth-promoting experience (Harvey & Fine, 2004, p. We are born into them, work our way toward adulthood in them, start our own as adults, and continue to be bound to them in old age. James Garbarino (1992) has gone so far as to call the family the "basic unit of human experience" (p. This chapter examines the family and its central roles in human development throughout the life span. How do infants, children, and adolescents experience family life, and how are they affected by their relationships with parents and siblings How is adult development affected by such family transitions as marrying, becoming a parent, watching children leave the nest, and becoming a grandparent The Family as a System within Systems Debate rages in the United States today about whether the marriage that forms the basis of a family must be between husband and wife or can be between two men or two women. This illustrates that it may not be possible to define family in a way that applies across all cultures and eras; many forms of family life have worked and continue to work for humans (Coontz, 2000a; Leeder, 2004). However we define it, proponents of family systems theory conceptualize a family as a system. This means that the family, like the human body, is truly a whole consisting of interrelated parts, each of which affects and is affected by every other part, and each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole (Bornstein & Sawyer, 2006; Parke & Buriel, 2006). Moreover, the family is a dynamic system-a self-organizing system that adapts itself to changes in its members and to changes in its environment (Maccoby, 2007). Every individual and every relationship within the family affects every other individual and relationship through reciprocal influence. Now think about how complex the family system becomes if we add another child (or two or six) to it. In addition, researchers have begun to focus on another subsystem, coparenting, the ways in which the two parents coordinate their parenting and function well (or poorly) as a team in relation to their children (J. Mutually supportive coparenting can make a big difference in development, beyond the impact of a close marital relationship. Now consider the complexity of an extended family household, in which parents and their children live with other kin-some combination of grandparents, siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, and nephews. Extended family households are common in many cultures of the world (Ruggles, 1994), and humans may have evolved to involve the whole "village," or at least many members of the extended family, rather than just the mother and father in raising children (Hrdy, 2005). In the United States, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and other ethnic minorities tend to place more emphasis on extended family bonds than European Americans do (Parke & Buriel, 2006). For example, economically disadvantaged single mothers can obtain needed help with child care and social support by living with their mothers (Burton, 1990; Oberlander, Black, & Starr, 2007). The family is also a system within other systems; whether it is of the nuclear or the extended type, it does not exist in a vacuum. The family experience in our culture is different from that in cultures where new brides become underlings in the households of their mothers-in-law or where men can have several wives. There is an almost infinite variety of family forms and family contexts in the world and a correspondingly wide range of developmental experiences within the family. You will see, however, that an increasing number of people do not experience this traditional family life cycle. They remain single or childless, they marry multiple times, or they otherwise deviate from a scenario in which a man and woman form a nuclear family, raise children, and grow old together (Patterson & Hastings, 2007). As a result, many family researchers reject the overly simple concept of the family life cycle with its set stages. However, they have embraced the concept that we lead "linked lives" across the life course-that our development is intertwined with that of other family members (Elder & Shanahan, 2006). They have also embraced the concept that families function as systems and, like the individuals in them, develop and change over the life span. During the second half of the 20th century, several dramatic social changes altered the makeup of the typical family and the quality of family experience. Census Bureau data and other surveys, we will highlight some of these trends (see Bryant et al.

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Suppose that the study designed to test this hypothesis indicates that boys are more independent than girls no matter how their parents treat them treatment hyperthyroidism discount 50 mg naltrexone amex. Then the hypothesis would be disconfirmed by the findings medications requiring prior authorization buy cheap naltrexone 50 mg on line, and the researcher would want to rethink this theory of sex-linked differences treatment narcolepsy cheap 50 mg naltrexone fast delivery. If other hypotheses based on this theory were inconsistent with the facts medicine 19th century buy 50mg naltrexone, the theory would have to be significantly revised or abandoned in favor of a better theory treatment 3 antifungal buy naltrexone 50mg lowest price. Although it is probably advocated more than it is used medications quotes generic naltrexone 50mg with amex, the best approach is to study a random sample of the population of interest-a sample formed by identifying all members of the larger population and then, by a random means (such as drawing names blindly), selecting a portion of that population to study. Random sampling increases confidence that the sample studied is representative of the larger population of interest and therefore that conclusions based on studying the sample will be true of the whole population. In practice, developmentalists often draw their samples- sometimes random, sometimes not-from their local communities. Thus, researchers might survey students at local high schools about their drug use but then be unable to make statements about American teenagers in general if, for example, the school is in a suburb where drug-use patterns are different than they might be in an inner-city area. They would certainly be unable to generalize about Kenyan or Brazilian high school students. All researchers must be careful to describe the characteristics of the sample they studied and to avoid overgeneralizing their findings to populations that might be socioeconomically or culturally different from the research sample (Rogoff, 2003). The methods used to study human development are varied, depending on the age group and aspect of development of interest (Creasey, 2006). Here we will look at some pros and cons of three major methods of data collection used by developmental researchers: self-report measures, behavioral observations, and physiological measurements. We illustrate these methods with a study by Julie Hubbard and her colleagues (2002) that used all three approaches. The researchers expected aggressive children of the first type to be more likely than aggressive children of the second type to become angry in a laboratory situation in which another child (a confederate of the researchers) cheated shamelessly in a board game about astronauts and won. Obviously the researchers needed a way to measure anger in the anger-provoking situation. Behavioral Observations Naturalistic observation involves observing people in their common, everyday (that is, natural) surroundings (Pellegrini, 1996). Ongoing behavior is observed in homes, schools, playgrounds, workplaces, nursing homes, or wherever people are going about their lives. Naturalistic observation has been used to study child development more often than adult development, largely because infants and young children often cannot be studied through self-report techniques that demand verbal skills. The greatest advantage of naturalistic observation is that it is the only technique that can reveal what children or adults do in everyday life. First, some behaviors (for example, heroic efforts to help other people) occur too infrequently and unexpectedly to be observed in this manner. Second, it is difficult to pinpoint the causes of the behavior, or of any developmental trends in the behavior, because in a natural setting many events are usually happening at the same time, any of which may affect behavior. Finally, the presence of an observer can sometimes make people behave differently than they otherwise would. Children may "ham it up" when they have an audience; parents may be on their best behavior. Therefore, researchers sometimes videotape the proceedings from a hidden location or spend time in the setting before they collect their "real" data so that the individuals they are observing become used to their presence and behave more naturally. To achieve greater control over the conditions under which they gather behavioral data, researchers often use structured observation; that is, they create special conditions designed to elicit the behavior of interest. The confederate was carefully trained to behave exactly the Verbal Reports Interviews, written questionnaires or surveys, ability and achievement tests, and personality scales all involve asking people questions either about themselves (self-report measures) or about someone else (for example, child behavior as reported by parents or teachers). These verbal report measures are often standardized, meaning that they ask the same questions in precisely the same order of everyone so that the responses of different individuals can be directly compared. The researchers had the children in the study watch a videotape of all the turns in the game they played with the cheating confederate, stopped the tape at each turn, and asked each child, "How angry did you feel now The researchers were able to use these ratings to calculate for each child an average degree of self-reported anger over the entire game and to look at changes in degree of anger as the game progressed. Although self-report and other verbal report methods are widely used to study human development, they have shortcomings. First, self-report measures typically cannot be used with infants, young children, cognitively impaired elders, or other individuals who cannot read or understand speech well. Informant surveys, questionnaires, or interviews are often used in these situations instead. Second, because individuals of different ages may not understand questions in the same way, age differences in responses may reflect age differences in comprehension or interpretation rather than age differences in the quality of interest to the researcher. Finally, respondents may try to present themselves (or those they are providing information about) in a positive or socially desirable light. Naturalistic observation of young children is done in day care centers, preschools, homes, and other everyday settings. Pairs of observers coded some of the same videotapes to ensure that they would come to similar conclusions about what facial emotion or nonverbal behavior was being expressed. Structured observation permits the study of behaviors rarely observable in natural settings. Concerns about this method center on whether conclusions based on behavior in specially designed settings will generalize to behavior in natural settings. Physiological Measurements Finally, developmental scientists sometimes take physiological measurements to assess variables of interest to them; for example, they use brain-scanning techniques to measure the activity in particular parts of the brain while children or adults engage in learning tasks, chart changes in hormone levels in menopausal women, or collect measurements of heart rate and other signs of arousal to assess emotions. Emotionally aroused people, including angry ones, often have sweaty palms and low Physiological measurement techniques include measuring brain activity through electrodes attached to the scalp as infants respond to different stimuli. Emotional arousal is also given away by a high heart rate, measured through electrodes on the chest. Physiological measurements have the advantage of being hard to fake; the person who tells you she is not angry may be physiologically aroused, and the adolescent who claims not to take drugs may be given away by a blood test. Physiological measurements are also particularly useful in the study of infants because infants cannot tell us verbally what they are thinking or feeling. The main limitation of physiological measurements is that it is not always clear what they are assessing. These, then, are the most commonly used techniques of collecting data about human development: verbal report measures (interviews, questionnaires, and tests), behavioral observation (both naturalistic and structured), and physiological measures. Because each method has its limitations, knowledge is advanced the most when multiple methods are used to study the same aspect of human development and these different methods lead to similar conclusions. In the Hubbard study, the use of multiple methods of assessing anger did indeed help the researchers distinguish between children showing "hot" and "cool" types of aggression. As expected, children who engaged in "hot" aggression in the classroom showed more anger during the game, especially as revealed by their skin conductance and nonverbal behavior. Whatever the basic techniques used, unique challenges may arise in collecting data from humans of different ages (Creasey, 2006). Studying young infants, whose attention is sometimes hard to capture and who cannot answer questions, calls for plenty of ingenuity, as illustrated by some of the work on infant perception in Chapter 6. For example, presenting information to toddlers through videos may seem like a good approach until you consider the findings of a recent study of 2-year-olds (Troseth, Saylor, and Archer, 2006). Children told face-to-face where to find a hidden toy could find it, but children given precisely the same information by a woman on a video screen could not. At the other end of the life span, researchers face many challenges gathering data from elderly adults. The Experimental and Correlational Methods Once developmental scientists have formulated hypotheses, chosen a sample, and figured out what to measure and how to measure it, they can test their hypotheses. The most powerful research method for explaining behavior and identifying the causes of developmental changes in behavior is the experiment. When experiments cannot be conducted, correlational research techniques may suggest answers to important why questions. The Experimental Method In an experiment, an investigator manipulates or alters some aspect of the environment to see how this affects the behavior of the sample of individuals studied. Consider an experiment conducted by Lynette Friedrich and Aletha Stein (1973) some years ago to study how different kinds of television programs affect the social behavior of preschool children. The goal of an experiment is to see whether the different treatments that form the independent variable-the variable manipulated so that its causal effects can be assessed-have differing effects on the behavior expected to be affected, the dependent variable in the experiment. One dependent variable that Friedrich and Stein chose to study was aggressive behavior. Friedrich and Stein chose to use a complicated naturalistic observation system to count several types of aggressive actions toward classmates in the nursery school. Behavior was observed before each child spent a month watching daily episodes of one of the three kinds of television programs and was recorded again after that period to see if it had changed. So, did the number of aggressive behaviors observed "depend on" the independent variable, the type of television watched Children who watched violent programs became more aggressive than children who watched prosocial or neutral programs-but this was only true of the children in the study who were already relatively aggressive. Investigators must arrange for different groups to have different experiences so that the effects of those experiences can be assessed. If investigators merely compare children who already watch a lot of violent television and children who watch little, they cannot establish that violent television watching causes increased aggression. Random assignment of participants to different experimental conditions (for example, by drawing names from a jar) is a way of making the treatment groups similar in all respects at the outset (in previous tendencies to be aggressive or helpful, in socioeconomic status, and in all other individual characteristics that could affect social behavior). Only if experimental groups are similar in all respects initially can researchers be confident that differences among groups at the end of the experiment were caused by differences in the experimental treatments they received. In a true experiment with proper experimental control, all factors other than the independent variable are controlled or held constant so that they cannot contribute to differences among the treatment groups. Friedrich and Stein ensured that children in the three treat- Many studies demonstrate that observational learning of aggression occurs when children watch a lot of violence on television. It would have ruined the experiment, for example, if the children exposed to violent programs had to watch them in a small, crowded room where tempers might flare but the children in the other two groups watched in larger, less crowded rooms. The greatest strength of the experimental method is its ability to establish unambiguously that one thing causes another-that manipulating the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable. When experiments are properly conducted, they contribute to our ability to explain human development and sometimes help us to optimize it. First, the findings of laboratory experiments do not always hold true in the real world, especially if the situations created in laboratory experiments are artificial and unlike the situations that people encounter in everyday life. Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979), who was critical of the fact that so many developmental studies are contrived experiments, once charged that developmental psychology had become "the science of the strange behavior of children in strange situations with strange adults" (p. Experiments often show what can cause development but not necessarily what does most strongly shape development in natural settings (McCall, 1977). A second limitation of the experimental method is that it cannot be used to address many significant questions about human development for ethical reasons. You would need to identify a sample of elderly women, randomly assign them to either the experimental group or the control group, then manipulate the independent variable by leaving the control group participants alone but killing the husband of each woman in the experimental group! Ethical principles obviously demand that developmentalists use methods other than true experimental ones to study questions about the effect of widowhood-and a host of other important questions about development. Researchers sometimes study how a program or intervention affects development through a quasi experiment-an experiment-like study that evaluates the effects of different treatments but does not randomly assign individuals to treatment groups (see Pitts, Prost, & Winters, 2005). A gerontologist, for example, might conduct a quasi experiment to compare the adjustment of widows who choose to participate in a new support group for widows and those who do not. When individuals are not randomly assigned to treatment groups, however, uncontrolled differences among the groups studied could influence the results (for example, the widows who seek help might be more sociable than those who do not). As a result, the researcher is not able to make strong statements about what caused what, as in a true experiment. The Correlational Method Largely because of ethical issues, most developmental research today is correlational rather than experimental. The correlational method generally involves determining whether two or more variables are related in a systematic way. Researchers do not randomly assign participants to treatment conditions, manipulate the independent variable, or control other factors, as in an experiment. Instead, researchers take people as they are and attempt to determine whether there are relationships among their experiences, characteristics, and developmental outcomes. But does this correlational study firmly establish that watching action-packed programs causes children to become more aggressive Moreover, Huesmann collected data on how aggressive children in his sample were during childhood. A second possibility in correlational studies is that the association between the two variables is caused by some third variable. Thus, the correlational method has one major limitation: it cannot unambiguously establish a causal relationship between one variable and another the way an experiment can. First, as already noted, many problems can be addressed only through the correlational method (or through quasi experiments) because it would be unethical to conduct certain experiments. Second, complex correlational studies and statistical analyses allow researchers to learn about how multiple factors operating in the "real world" combine to influence development. Because life-span development is influenced by multiple factors rather than one or two factors at a time, experiments are not enough. The results of multiple studies addressing the same question can be synthesized to produce overall conclusions through the research method of meta-analysis (Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). A meta-analysis of multiple studies of the link between watching violence on television and aggression showed a reliable relationship between the two (Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Bushman & Anderson, 2001). That may seem small, but it is larger than the average correlation between calcium intake and bone mass or between time spent doing homework and academic achievement (Huesmann & Taylor, 2006). Moreover, the relationship shows up in studies using the correlational method, in studies using the experimental method, and in both laboratory and naturalistic settings (see Huesmann & Taylor, 2006; Kirsh, 2006). First we will look at three influences on the outcomes of developmental studies, then we explore the strengths and weaknesses of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Yet throughout history treatment of strep throat cheap naltrexone 50mg visa, many children turned out fine even though their mothers-unaware of many risk factors-smoked and drank during their pregnancies 911 treatment for hair naltrexone 50 mg generic, received heavy doses of medication during delivery medicine hat mall order naltrexone 50mg fast delivery, or experienced serious illness georges marvellous medicine generic naltrexone 50mg with amex. So symptoms anemia buy cheap naltrexone 50mg on-line, although many factors place a fetus at risk and increase the likelihood of problems after birth symptoms 0f diabetes naltrexone 50mg with amex, not all at-risk infants end up with problems (Fraser, 2004). Is it also possible that some babies exposed to and clearly affected by risks recover from their deficiencies later in life Indeed it is, and researchers now have the results of major longitudinal studies that say so. Emmy Werner, with her colleague Ruth Smith, studied a group of babies born in 1955 on the island of Kauai in Hawaii for 40 years (Werner, 1989a, 1989b; Werner & Smith, 1982, 1992, 2001). There seem to be some points in the life span, especially early on, in which both positive and negative environmental forces have especially strong effects. It would be a mistake to assume that all children who have problems at birth are doomed. In short, early experience by itself can, but rarely does, make or break development; later experience counts, too, sometimes enough to turn around a negative course of development. Some problems created by prenatal and perinatal hazards are long-lasting, but many at-risk babies show remarkable resilience and outgrow their problems, especially if they have personal resources, such as sociability and intelligence, and grow up in stimulating and supportive postnatal environments where someone loves them. Some aspects of the mother can influence the quality of the prenatal environment, including her age, emotional state, and nutritional status. Women who experience prolonged and severe emotional stress during pregnancy may give birth to smaller babies. Good nutrition is important throughout pregnancy and is often supplemented with vitamins and fortified foods. What factors contribute to resilience and help children overcome prenatal or perinatal adversities Many births today take place in the medical setting of a hospital or birthing center. Childbirth is a three-stage process that begins with regular contractions of the uterus and dilation of the cervix. Among the possible birth complications is anoxia, or an oxygen shortage, which may occur for a variety of reasons. Anoxia can lead to brain damage or cerebral palsy if the brain is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes. Some babies must be assisted through the birth canal with vacuum extraction or forceps. Most common are epidural or spinal blocks to reduce pain and oxytocin to promote contractions. The experience of pregnancy and childbirth vary widely, across cultures as well as across women within a culture. Fathers, too, often need time to adjust to the life changes that accompany becoming a parent. During this time, the single-celled zygote created when a sperm penetrates an egg repeatedly multiples and travels to the uterus where it implants itself. The placenta forms and connects the embryo to its mother through the umbilical cord. Major developments occur during this time, including formation and beating of the heart and the start of sexual differentiation. The fetal period lasts from the ninth week after conception until the end of pregnancy. Growth during the prenatal period is faster than during any other period of the life span. Nearly all cultures promote breastfeeding as the ideal way to nourish the young infant. For a variety of reasons, some mothers bottle-feed their newborns or switch to bottle-feeding after a trial run with breastfeeding. Some infants are considered to be at risk for short-term or longterm problems and must receive extra care during the neonatal period. Babies born prematurely and who have low birth weight are at risk for a number of complications. Many at-risk babies show remarkable resilience and outgrow their problems, especially if they have personal resources, such as sociability and intelligence, and grow up in stimulating and supportive postnatal environments where someone loves them. Teratogens include diseases, drugs, or other environmental agent that can harm the developing fetus. Teratogens are most damaging to an organ during the time when the organ is developing most rapidly. In addition, the longer and stronger the exposure to a teratogen, the more likely that damage will occur to the developing child. The genetic makeup of both mother and unborn baby influence the effect of a teratogen, as does the quality of the prenatal and postnatal environments. Numerous drugs-prescription, over-the-counter, and recreational-have been found to have teratogenic effects. One of the most widely used drugs-alcohol-results in a cluster of symptoms that have life-long effects on the children who are exposed prenatally. Winner of an Emmy award, it is available to watch in its entirety on the companion website. The site also provides background on the stem-cell debate and contains related multimedia resources for further exploration. It also provides advice on early feeding issues like breastfeeding and when to introduce solid food. Visible Embryo the visible embryo is a multiple award winning site that offers an amazing amount of text and graphic information on the human organism as it develops from ovulation through the fetal stage. One nice element is the visible "spiral" depicting 23 distinct stages of prenatal change. You can also connect directly to the following sites: Birth Defects the website for the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities includes links to information on birth defects and disabilities, press releases, and current health news. A companion website contains interactive and multimedia opportunities to explore topics related to fertility and reproduction, such as human cloning and cell division. Although he has grown at a normal rate throughout childhood, his height is below the 5th percentile line on the growth chart. His bone age is delayed by 2 to 3 years, so he is unlikely to reach a normal adult height. He has always been the smallest child in his class, and the size difference is getting more noticeable as some of his classmates begin their growth spurts: Josh looks more like a 4th grader than a 7th grader. Although he is growing at the normal rate of development, he is still markedly shorter than other boys his age. And what are the psychological implications for Josh and other children, adolescents, and adults of the physical and health changes that occur throughout the life span These are the sorts of questions that we address in this chapter on health and physical development. We start with an overview of the major physical systems that underlie human functioning. We also look at the reproductive system as it matures during adolescence and then changes during adulthood. And we watch the physical self in action, as motor skills develop during childhood and as physical fitness and motor behaviors change during adulthood. We identify influences on health, physical development, and aging so that you can better understand why some children develop-and some older adults age-more rapidly than others. At certain times and for certain developments, genetic influences dominate, whereas at other times, environmental influences are more powerful. But as we have explained in previous chapters, genetic and environmental forces are always working together. The average female in the United States is about 5 feet 4 inches (162 cm) and the average male is 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm), but there is considerable variability. Sandy Allen from the state of Indiana, for instance, is considered the tallest living woman in the world at just over 7 feet 7 inches; most women with Turner syndrome (see Chapter 3) are nearly 3 feet shorter than this-4 feet 8 inches on average (Kochi et al. Even among those considered within the average range of height, there is variability. Genes account for some of this: Tall people tend to have tall parents, whereas short people often have "short genes" hanging on their family tree. Research with twins confirms a fairly strong genetic influence in height (Estourgie-van Burk et al. But as noted in Chapter 3, even if you inherit the genetic propensity to be tall (or short), environment can influence the expression of those genes. If you lack adequate nutrition, for example, you may not realize your full growth potential. An abnormality with their stomach lining leaves them unable to absorb nutrients from food despite adequate consumption. To understand how growth can be influenced by genes and environments, we need to consider the workings of the endocrine and nervous systems. A 5-year-old child is physically able to experience the world in ways markedly different from those available to a 5-month-old infant. Mariah, for example, can throw a ball with her mom, run with her dog, play hopscotch with her friends, feed and dress herself, and enjoy many of the rides at the amusement park. Changes in her brain have increased her memory abilities and capacity to think, and her language skills are astounding compared with those of the 5-month-old. It will be years before their brains are fully developed, allowing greater concentration and more sophisticated thought processes. Their strength and coordination on motor tasks will continue to improve, and their bodies will grow taller and heavier and will mature sexually. Human growth and development is an incredibly complex process, influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The Endocrine System the endocrine, or hormonal, system consists of a group of endocrine glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. Perhaps the most critical of the endocrine glands is the pituitary gland, the so-called master gland located at the base of the brain. Moreover, the pituitary produces growth hormone, which triggers the production of specialized hormones that directly regulate growth. Children who lack adequate growth hormone are unlikely to exceed 4 feet (or 130 cm) in height as adults if left untreated. Treatment with synthetic growth hormones can lead to near-expected adult height if administered early-well before the start of puberty (Bajpai et al. By contrast, administering growth hormones to children who are simply short and do not have an endocrine problem is likely to do no good and can even backfire. Hormone treatment tends to induce an early and short puberty, and treated children either attain the height they would have reached anyway early or end up smaller than they would otherwise have been (Rosenfeld, 1997). Adults who use human growth hormone in an attempt to enhance their athletic performance are at risk for a variety of health conditions, including cardiac problems and insulin resistance. The thyroid gland also plays a key role in physical growth and development and in the development of the nervous system. Children whose mothers had a thyroid deficiency during pregnancy can experience intellectual problems (LaFranchi, Haddow, & Hollowell, 2005). Thyroid deficiency during infancy can also lead to mental retardation and slow growth if unnoticed and untreated (Robertson, 1993). Children who develop a thyroid deficiency later in life will not suffer brain damage, because most of their brain growth has already occurred, but their physical growth will slow drastically. A male fetus will not develop male reproductive organs unless (1) a gene on his Y chromosome triggers the development of the testes (which are endocrine glands), and (2) the testes secrete the most important of the male hormones, testosterone. When people speak of adolescence as a time of "raging hormones," they are quite right. The testes of a male secrete large quantities of testosterone and other male hormones (called androgens). These hormones stimulate the production of growth hormone, which in turn triggers the adolescent growth spurt. Androgens are also responsible for the development of the male sex organs and contribute to sexual motivation during adulthood. Meanwhile, in adolescent girls, the ovaries (also endocrine glands) produce larger quantities of the primary female hormone, estrogen, and of progesterone. Estrogen increases dramatically at puberty, stimulating the production of growth hormone and the adolescent growth spurt, much as testosterone does in males. Finally, the adrenal glands secrete androgen-like hormones that contribute to the maturation of the bones and muscles in both sexes. There is also evidence that the maturation of the adrenal glands during middle childhood results in sexual attraction well before puberty in both boys and girls (McClintock & Herdt, 1996) and relates to sexual orientation in adulthood (Arlt et al. The roles of different endocrine glands in physical growth and development are summarized in Table 5. In adulthood, endocrine glands continue to secrete hormones, under the direction of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, to regulate bodily processes. Throughout the life span, then, the endocrine system works with the nervous system to keep the body on an even keel. Yet changes occur; for example, declines in levels of sex hormones are associated with menopause. And, as you will see in Chapter 17, some theorists believe that changes in the functioning of the endocrine glands late in life help bring about aging and death. In short, the endocrine system, in collaboration with the nervous system, is centrally involved in growth during childhood, physical and sexual maturation during adolescence, functioning over the life span, and aging later in life. Briefly, the nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) and the neural tissue that extends into all parts of the body (peripheral nervous system). Branching, bushy dendrites receive signals from other neurons, and the long axon of a neuron transmits electrical signals to other neurons or, in some cases, directly to a muscle cell.

Second symptoms 3 weeks into pregnancy order 50mg naltrexone with mastercard, he was one of the first to highlight the importance for later development of early experiences in the family medicine ethics purchase naltrexone 50 mg visa. Developmentalists have often slighted emotional development medicine nausea buy 50mg naltrexone visa, focusing instead on observable behavior or on rational thought processes medicine lyrics cheap naltrexone 50mg with mastercard. The five psychosexual stages involve emotional conflicts that create the need for defense mechanisms and have lasting effects on personality symptoms 0f yeast infectiion in women discount naltrexone 50 mg line. Biological needs drive development symptoms 6 days before period generic naltrexone 50 mg without prescription, but parents can contribute to emotional problems, especially if they are overly restrictive. Although Freud called attention to the unconscious, early experience, and emotions, many specifics of his theory lack support. In 2006, Congressman Mark Foley from Florida resigned from office in disgrace after it was revealed that he wrote sexually suggestive e-mails to adolescent males serving as congressional pages. Foley also chaired the House Caucus on Missing and Exploited children, speaking often on the need to protect children from sexual predators. Adolescents who never developed a strong sense of trust in other people during infancy, for example, may fear abandonment and may try to use sex to keep from being abandoned. Or focus on the adolescent psychosocial conflict of identity versus role confusion: Adolescents seek a sense of identity by experimenting with different roles and behaviors to see what suits them. They try drugs, dye their hair orange, join radical groups, change majors every semester, and yes, have sex. Notes on School Refusal Like a good Freudian, check for unresolved conflicts from earlier stages of development. For example, might Terrell have developed a sense of shame and doubt owing to negative reactions from his parents when he tried to assert himself as a toddler Might Terrell have performed poorly on school tasks during the first week of school and concluded that he is inferior to the other children Erikson studied with Anna Freud and emigrated from Germany to the United States when Hitler rose to power (Friedman, 1999). Like Sigmund Freud, Erikson (1963, 1968, 1982) concerned himself with the inner dynamics of personality and proposed that the personality evolves through systematic stages. Placed less emphasis on the unconscious, irrational, and selfish id and more on the rational ego and its adaptive powers. Held a more positive view of human nature, seeing people as active in their development, largely rational, and able to overcome the effects of harmful early experiences. Erik Erikson built on Freudian theory and proposed that people experience eight psychosexual crises over their life span. Psychosocial Stages Erikson believed that humans everywhere experience eight major psychosocial stages, or conflicts, during their lives. However, the unsuccessful resolution of a conflict will influence how subsequent stages play out. For example, the first conflict, trust versus mistrust, revolves around whether or not infants become able to rely on other people to be responsive to their needs. To develop a sense of trust, infants must be able to count on their primary caregivers to feed them, relieve their discomfort, come when beckoned, and return their smiles and babbles. If caregivers neglect, reject, or respond inconsistently to infants, infants will mistrust others. A healthy balance between the terms of the conflict must be struck for development to proceed optimally. Trust should outweigh mistrust, but an element of skepticism is also needed: an overindulged infant may become too trusting (a gullible "sucker"). This will position adolescents to successfully resolve the conflict for which Erikson (1968) is best known, identity versus role confusion. Erikson characterized adolescence as a time of "identity crisis" in which humans attempt to define who they are (in terms of career, religion, sexual identity, and so on), where they are heading, and how they fit into society. As part of their search, they often change their minds and experiment with new looks, new majors, new relationships, and new group memberships. Erikson should know: He was the tall, blond stepson of a Jewish doctor who wandered all over Europe after high school, trying out a career as an artist and several other possibilities before he ended up studying child psychoanalysis under Anna Freud and finally found his calling in his mid-20s (Friedman, 1999). Successfully resolving the adolescent conflict of identity versus role confusion paves the way for resolving the early adulthood conflict of intimacy versus isolation and for becoming ready to participate in a committed, long-term relationship. Successful resolution of the middle-age conflict of generativity versus stagnation involves individuals gaining a sense that they have produced something that will outlive them, whether by successfully raising children or by doing something meaningful through work or volunteer activities. Finally, elderly adults who resolve the psychosocial conflict of integrity versus despair find a sense of meaning in their lives that will help them face death. Erikson clearly did not agree with Freud that the personality is essentially "set in stone" during the first 5 years of life. Yet he, like Freud and other psychoanalytic theorists, believed that people progress through systematic stages of development, undergoing similar personality changes at similar ages. Individual differences in personality presumably reflect the different experiences individuals have as they struggle to cope with the challenges of each life stage. And although it provides a useful description of human personality development, it does not provide an adequate explanation of how this development comes about. Important psychoanalytic theorists such as Erikson continue to shape understanding of human development (Austrian, 2002), but many developmentalists have rejected the psychoanalytic perspective in favor of theories that are more precise and testable. Summing Up Compared to Freud, neo-Freudian Erik Erikson placed more emphasis on social influences, the rational ego, the potential for overcoming early problems, and the whole life span. The theories of both Freud and Erikson, though influential, are difficult to test and describe development better than they explain it. Erikson also seems to have captured some central developmental issues in his eight stages. He has had an especially great impact on ideas about and research on adolescent identity formation and issues faced during adulthood (see Chapter 11). It is sometimes vague and this bold statement-that nurture is everything and that nature, or genetic endowment, counts for nothing-was made by John B. Watson, a strong believer in the importance of learning in human development and a pioneer of learning theory perspectives on human development. Early learning theorists such as Watson emphasized that human behavior changes in direct response to environmental stimuli; later learning theorists such as Albert Bandura grant humans a more active and cognitive role in their own development but still believe that their development can take different directions depending on their experiences. He maintained that learned associations between external stimuli and observable responses are the building blocks of both normal and abnormal human development. Like John Locke, Watson believed that children have no inborn tendencies and that how they turn out depends entirely on the environment in which they grow up and the ways in which their parents and other significant people in their lives treat them. To make his point, Watson and colleague Rosalie Raynor (1920) set out to demonstrate that fears can be learned-that they are not necessarily inborn as was commonly thought. They used the principles of classical conditioning, a simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov first called attention to classical conditioning. In a famous experiment, Pavlov demonstrated how dogs, who have an innate (unlearned) tendency to salivate at the sight of food, could learn to salivate at the sound of a bell if, during a training period, the bell was regularly sounded just before they were given food. Watson and Raynor presented a gentle white rat to a nowfamous infant named Albert, who showed no fear of it. However, every time the rat was presented, Watson would slip behind Albert and bang a steel rod with a hammer. During conditioning, the stimuli of the white rat and the loud noise were presented together several times. Afterward, Watson presented the white rat to Albert without banging the steel rod. This learned response generalized to other furry items such as a rabbit and a Santa Claus mask. Fortunately, fears learned through classical conditioning can be unlearned if the feared stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus for happy emotions (Jones, 1924). Classical conditioning is undoubtedly involved when infants learn to love their parents, who at first may be neutral stimuli but who become associated with the positive sensations of receiving milk, being rocked, and being comforted. And classical conditioning helps explain why adults find certain songs on the radio, scents, or articles of clothing "turn them on. According to the learning theory perspective, then, it is a mistake to assume that children advance through a series 1. Preconditioning phase Neutral stimulus leads to White rat No response Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response elicits Loud noise 2. Conditioning phase Neutral stimulus Fear White rat + Unconditioned stimulus elicits (several pairings) Fear Loud noise 3. It is a continuous process of behavior change that is context specific and can differ enormously from person to person. A learner first behaves in some way and then comes to associate this action with the positive or negative consequences that follow it. The basic principle behind operant conditioning makes sense: people tend to repeat behaviors that have pleasant consequences and cut down on behaviors that have unpleasant consequences. Through operant conditioning, individuals learn new skills and a range of habits, both good and bad. In the language of operant conditioning, reinforcement occurs when a consequence strengthens a response, or makes it more likely to occur. If a preschool child cleans his room, receives a hug, then cleans his room more frequently thereafter, the hug provided positive reinforcement for room cleaning. Positive here means that something has been added to the situation, and reinforcement means that the behavior is strengthened. Thus a positive reinforcer is an event that, when introduced following a behavior, makes that behavior more probable. Then, to maintain the behavior, it is best to shift to a "partial reinforcement schedule" in which only some occurrences of the behavior are reinforced and the pattern of reinforcement is unpredictable. Negative reinforcement (which is not a fancy term for punishment) occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation, or is escaped or avoided, after the behavior occurs. Have you been in a car in which an obnoxious buzzer sounds until you fasten your seat belt The idea is that your "buckling up" behavior will become a habit through negative reinforcement: buckling your seat belt allows you to escape the unpleasant buzzer. No candy or hugs follow the action, so negative rather than positive reinforcement makes you likely to buckle your seat belt. Many bad habits develop because they allow people to avoid or escape unpleasant events; they were learned through negative reinforcement. Teenagers may learn to lie to avoid long lectures from their parents or to drink because it allows them to escape feelings of anxiety at parties. In each case, a behavior is strengthened through negative reinforcement-through the removal or elimination of something unpleasant like a lecture or anxiety. Contrast reinforcement, whether it is positive or negative, with punishment: Whereas reinforcement increases the strength of the behavior that preceded it, punishment decreases the strength of the behavior or weakens it. Positive punishment occurs when an unpleasant event is added to the situation following a behavior (for example, a child is spanked for misbehaving, a cashier is criticized for coming up short of cash at the end of the day). Negative punishment occurs when something pleasant is removed from the situation following the behavior (a child loses the privilege of staying up late on Saturday night, the amount the cashier was short is deducted from her pay). Both positive and negative punishment decrease the likelihood that the punished behavior will be repeated. Behavior that is ignored, or no longer reinforced, tends to become less frequent through a process called extinction. Too often, the well-behaved child is ignored and the misbehaving child gets the attention-attention that can serve as positive reinforcement for the misbehavior. Skinner and other behavioral theorists have emphasized the power of positive reinforcement and have generally discouraged the use of physical punishment in child rearing. By contrast, many parents believe that physical punishment of bad behavior is necessary in raising children; indeed, in a 2004 national survey 77% of men and 69% of women agreed that a child sometimes needs a "good, hard spanking" (Child Trends Databank, undated). Negative reinforcement, withdrawing an unpleasant stimulus (strengthens the behavior) Dad stops joking with Lulu. Moosie gets very jealous when Dad pays attention to Lulu, so his whining enables him to bring this unpleasant state of affairs to an end. Soon Moosie begins to whine, louder and louder, that he wants them to turn off the television so he can play Nintendo games. Consider both the type of consequence-whether it is a pleasant or aversive stimulus-and whether it is administered ("added to" the situation) or withdrawn. Notice that reinforcers strengthen whining behavior, or make it more likely in the future, whereas punishers weaken it. Although researchers cannot always be sure whether punishment causes problem behavior, problem behavior causes punishment, or both, research suggests that physical punishment may make children resentful and anxious and may breed aggression by teaching them that hitting is an appropriate way to solve problems. The negative effects of physical punishment are especially clear when the child punished is older than 6 years (Benjet & Kazdin, 2003). The two may develop in different directions based on their different histories of reinforcement and punishment. Yet some developmentalists believe that Skinner placed too much emphasis on a single type of learning and too little emphasis on the role of cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and reflection in learning. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory In his social cognitive theory (formerly called social learning theory), Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura (1977, 1986, 1989, 2000, 2006) claims that humans are cognitive beings whose active processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development.

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References

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