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STUDENT DIGITAL NEWSLETTER ALAGAPPA INSTITUTIONS |
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Bruce Kendall Burnett, PhD
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For some people diabetes mellitus type 1 symptoms cheap 500 mg glycomet fast delivery, important ceremonies related to family structure-like marriage and birth-are connected to religious celebrations diabetes knowledge questionnaire glycomet 500 mg line. Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement through socialization diabetes test meters reviews generic glycomet 500 mg with mastercard. From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce gender roles diabetes type 2 clinical trials quality glycomet 500mg, organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on through society diabetes in dogs journal 500mg glycomet visa. Government Although we do not think about it diabete 2 symptoms 500 mg glycomet with visa, many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the government. To be defined as an "adult" usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself. And sixty-five years old is the start of "old age" since most people become eligible for senior benefits at that point. Each time we embark on one of these new categories-senior, adult, taxpayer-we must be socialized into our new role. Seniors must learn the ropes of Medicare, Social Security benefits, and senior shopping discounts. These government dictates mark the points at which we require socialization into a new category. Mass Media Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the television (and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly influences social norms (Roberts, Foehr, and Rideout 2005). People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture-what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms). In Up, for example, the only human female character dies within the first ten minutes of the film. For the millions of girls watching Pixar films, there are few strong characters or roles for them to relate to . If they do not see possible versions of themselves, they may come to view women as secondary to the lives of men. Disney is well known for films with female leads, such as Snow White, Cinderella, the Little Mermaid, and Mulan. If she is not a princess to begin with, she typically ends the movie by marrying a prince or, in the case of Mulan, a military general. Although not all "princesses" in Disney movies play a passive role in their lives, they typically find themselves needing to be rescued by a man, and the happy ending they all search for includes marriage. Alongside this prevalence of princesses, many parents are expressing concern about the culture of princesses that Disney has created. Peggy Orenstein addresses this problem in her popular book, Cinderella Ate My Daughter. Orenstein wonders why every little girl is expected to be a "princess" and why pink has become an all-consuming obsession for many young girls. Another mother wondered what she did wrong when her three-year-old daughter refused to do "nonprincessy" things, including running and jumping. The effects of this princess culture can have negative consequences for girls throughout life. An early emphasis on beauty and sexiness can lead to eating disorders, low self-esteem, and risky sexual behavior among older girls. In the United States, socialization throughout the life course is determined greatly by age norms and "time-related rules and regulations" (Setterson 2002). As we grow older, we encounter age-related transition points that require socialization into a new role, such as becoming school age, entering the workforce, or retiring. Child labor laws, enacted in the early twentieth century, nationally declared that this OpenStax book is available for free at cnx. Making Connections: the Big Picture Gap Year: How Different Societies Socialize Young Adults Figure 5. Young adults in America are encouraged to enter college or the workforce right away, students in England and India can take a year off like British Princes William and Harry did, while young men in Singapore and Switzerland must serve time in the military. When teens finish their secondary schooling (aka high school in the United States), they often take a year "off" before entering college. Frequently, they might take a job, travel, or find other ways to experience another culture. Prince William, the Duke of Cambridge, spent his gap year practicing survival skills in Belize, teaching English in Chile, and working on a dairy farm in the United Kingdom (Prince of Wales 2012a). In the United States, this life transition point is socialized quite differently, and taking a year off is generally frowned upon. In yet other nations, this phase of the life course is tied into conscription, a term that describes compulsory military service. Youth in these nations (often only the males) are expected to undergo a number of months or years of military training and service. Can you think of similar social norms-related to life age-transition points-that vary from country to country Through interacting with others and watching others interact, the expectation to fulfill roles becomes clear. While in elementary or middle school, the prospect of having a boyfriend or girlfriend may have been considered undesirable. By observing the excitement and importance attached to dating and relationships within the high school social scene, it quickly becomes apparent that one is now expected not only to be a child and a student, but also a significant other. Graduation from formal education-high school, vocational school, or college-involves socialization into a new set of expectations. Educational expectations vary not only from culture to culture, but also from class to class. While middle- or upper-class families may expect their daughter or son to attend a four-year university after graduating from high school, other families may expect their child to immediately begin working full-time, as many within their family have done before. Rampant foreclosures and bank failures set off a chain of events sparking government distrust, loan defaults, and large-scale unemployment. Millennials, sometimes also called Gen Y, is a term that describes the generation born during the early eighties to early nineties. While the recession was in full swing, many were in the process of entering, attending, or graduating from high school and college. With employment prospects at historical lows, large numbers of graduates were unable to find work, sometimes moving back in with their parents and struggling to pay back student loans. According to the New York Times, this economic stall is causing the Millennials to postpone what most Americans consider to be adulthood: "The traditional cycle seems to have gone off course, as young people remain untethered to romantic partners or to permanent homes, going back to school for lack of better options, traveling, avoiding commitments, competing ferociously for unpaid internships or temporary (and often grueling) Teach for America jobs, forestalling the beginning of adult life" (Henig 2010). The term Boomerang Generation describes recent college graduates, for whom lack of adequate employment upon college graduation often leads to a return to the parental home (Davidson, 2014). The five milestones that define adulthood, Henig writes, are "completing school, leaving home, becoming financially independent, marrying, and having a child" (Henig 2010). In the process of socialization, adulthood brings a new set of challenges and expectations, as well as new roles to fill. Pleasures of youth, such as wild nights out and serial dating, become less acceptable in the eyes of society. Responsibility and commitment are emphasized as pillars of adulthood, and men and women are expected to "settle down. Just as young children pretend to be doctors or lawyers, play house, and dress up, adults also engage in anticipatory socialization, the preparation for future life roles. Examples would include a couple who cohabitate before marriage or soon-to-be parents who read infant care books and prepare their home for the new arrival. As part of anticipatory socialization, adults who are financially able begin planning for their retirement, saving money, and looking into future healthcare options. The transition into any new life role, despite the social structure that supports it, can be difficult. Resocialization In the process of resocialization, old behaviors that were helpful in a previous role are removed because they are no longer of use. Resocialization is necessary when a person moves to a senior care center, goes to boarding school, or serves time in jail. The process of resocialization is typically more stressful than normal socialization because people have to unlearn behaviors that have become customary to them. A ship at sea is a total institution, as are religious convents, prisons, or some cult organizations. First, members entering an institution must leave behind their old identity through what is known as a degradation ceremony. In a degradation ceremony, new members lose the aspects of their old identity and are given new identities. To enter a senior care home, an elderly person often must leave a family home and give up many belongings which were part of his or her long-standing identity. Though caretakers guide the elderly compassionately, the process can still be one of loss. In many cults, this process is also gentle and happens in an environment of support and caring. New prisoners lose freedom, rights (including the right to privacy), and personal belongings. These individuals must give up any markers of their former identity in order to be resocialized into an identity as a "soldier. Air Force/Wikimedia Commons) After new members of an institution are stripped of their old identity, they build a new one that matches the new society. In the military, soldiers go through basic training together, where they learn new rules and bond with one another. Soldiers must keep their areas clean for inspection, learn to march in correct formations, and salute when in the presence of superiors. Learning to deal with life after having lived in a total institution requires yet another process of resocialization. They set aside personal goals to achieve a mission, and they take pride in the accomplishments of their units. Many soldiers who leave the military transition these skills into excellent careers. Others find themselves lost upon leaving, uncertain about the outside world and what to do next. Charles Cooley and George Mead both contributed significantly to the sociological understanding of the development of self. Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan developed their ideas further and researched how our sense of morality develops. Research demonstrates that who we are is affected by both nature (our genetic and hormonal makeup) and nurture (the social environment in which we are raised). Schools, workplaces, and the media communicate and reinforce cultural norms and values. Resocialization is a process that removes the socialization we have developed over time and replaces it with newly learned rules and roles. Because it involves removing old habits that have been built up, resocialization can be a stressful and difficult process. Psychologists are interested in mental health, while sociologists are interested in societal functions. Why do sociologists need to be careful when drawing conclusions from twin studies Why are wealthy parents more likely than poor parents to socialize their children toward creativity and problem solving Wealthy parents are socializing their children toward the skills of white-collar employment. Wealthy parents are not concerned about their children rebelling against their rules. Which of the following is not an age-related transition point when Americans must be socialized to new roles They are expected to enter college, trade school, or the workforce shortly after graduation. What types of questions would the sociologist ask, and what research methods might he employ Now consider the questions and methods a psychologist might use to study the same issue. Why are twin studies an important way to learn about the relative effects of genetics and socialization on children What questions about human development do you believe twin studies are best for answering Why do you think that people like Chris Langan continue to have difficulty even after they are helped through societal systems Do you think it is important that parents discuss gender roles with their young children, or is gender a topic better left for later How do parents consider gender norms when buying their children books, movies, and toys Based on your observations, when are adolescents more likely to listen to their parents or to their peer groups when making decisions Consider a person who is joining a sorority or fraternity, attending college or boarding school, or even a child beginning kindergarten. Many soldiers leave the military or return from war and have difficulty resocializing into civilian life. Making Connections: the Relational Worlds of Adolescent Girls at Emma Willard School.
Doses of antimicrobials commonly used for surgical prophylaxis can be found in these guidelines diabetic necklace generic glycomet 500 mg visa. No high-quality randomized trials are investigating the safety or efficacy in preventing surgical infections of different doses of prophylactic systemic antimicrobials for surgery diabetes service dogs north carolina buy glycomet 500 mg low price, including joint arthroplasty diabetes mellitus 2 medications purchase 500 mg glycomet with visa. The first International Consensus Meeting in 2013 recommended that perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis be weight-based diabetes type 1 fact sheet purchase 500mg glycomet with amex. These recommendations were based on the notion that the dose of antibiotic administered directly influences the serum levels of the given antimicrobial with inadequate serum levels of the antimicrobial being considered detrimental diabetes medicine generic 500mg glycomet mastercard. Serum and tissue concentrations of antimicrobials given at standard doses may not be adequate in obese patients due to various factors [2] diabetes symptoms heat intolerance discount glycomet 500mg on line. In one small, prospective study on obese patients, a 2 gram dose of cefazolin was associated with a lower surgical site infection rates than a 1 gm dose [4]. A 2 gm dose likely achieves appropriate local surgical tissue levels, including in bone, in normal size patients [5]. In this guideline, 2 gm of cefazolin is recommended as a standard dose and 3 gm for patients weighing 120 kgs or greater. Subsequent small studies [7,8], including a small randomized controlled trial [9], have compared tissue levels of 2 gm with 3 gm of cefazolin in obese women undergoing caesarean section. There is some evidence to suggest that vancomycin may be more likely to achieve therapeutic serum levels with weight-based dosing of 15 to 20 mg/kg compared with a standard dose (often 1 gm) when given for surgical prophylaxis without an increased risk of renal impairment. In addition, weight-based dosing rather than a fixed 1 gm dose has been recommended for total joint arthroplasty [10,11]. Furthermore, the authors found that weight-based dosing achieved higher levels of vancomycin at all points during surgery without increasing nephrotoxicity and acute kidney injury [10]. Section 1 There are no studies comparing clinical or pharmacokinetic outcomes with different doses of clindamycin for surgical prophylaxis. Endof-procedure cefazolin concentrations after administration for prevention of surgical-site infection. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis in the gastric bypass patient: do we achieve therapeutic levels Increased 3-gram cefazolin dosing for cesarean delivery prophylaxis in obese women. Population pharmacokinetics of cefazolin in serum and adipose tissue from overweight and obese women undergoing cesarean delivery. Pharmacokinetics of cefazolin prophylaxis in obese gravidae at time of cesarean delivery. Vancomycin prophylaxis for total joint arthroplasty: incorrectly dosed and has a higher rate of periprosthetic infection than cefazolin. Concentrations of methicillin and clindamycin phosphate in human bone taken during total hip replacement. A randomized prospective study in patients undergoing elective arthroplasty is underway that should answer this question definitively. To this end, perioperative antibiotics are widely used; however, hospital protocols vary from a single preoperative dose to several days of postoperative prophylaxis. Many surgeons administer antibiotics for a total of 24 hours as this is the maximum time period recommended by several current guidelines. They recommend against the administration of antibiotics in the postoperative period and that only a single preoperative antibiotic be administered, largely due to fears of increased bacterial resistance and side effects of unnecessarily prolonged antibiotics [4,5]. However, the limited literature in arthroplasty cannot support this recommendation. They concluded that postoperative antibiotics did not reduce the rates of infections; however, they reported that the quality of evidence was very low. Comparison of intraoperative versus 24 hour antibiotic prophylaxis in total joint replacement. Comparative multicenter trial of teicoplanin versus cefazolin for antimicrobial prophylaxis in prosthetic joint implant surgery. Efficacy of a single dose of cefazolin as a prophylactic antibiotic in primary arthroplasty. Other literature has been retrospective in nature, including reviews by Tang et al. While the majority of studies are underpowered, a retrospective study by Tan et al. Throughout all preoperative risk groups, however, patients with 24 hours of antibiotics demonstrated a trend toward a higher rate of acute renal failure. It is important to recognize the different antibiotics used in each study noted above, as well as the small sample sizes. These studies were also performed predominantly in the 1990s and early 2000s and modern antibiotics may have a different result. While future studies may show that there are no differences in single versus multiple doses of perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis, the current literature does not support this strong conclusion. Antibiotic prophylaxis and the risk of surgical site infections following total hip arthroplasty: timely administration is the most important factor. Effect of antibiotic prophylaxis on surgical site infections following removal of orthopedic implants used for treatment of foot, ankle, and lower leg fractures: a randomized clinical trial. Single-dose vs multiple-dose antibiotic prophylaxis in instrumented Prevention 297 [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] lumbar fusion - a prospective study. A doubleblinded, randomized, controlled clinical trial to compare cefazolin and cefonicid for antimicrobial prophylaxis in clean orthopedic surgery. Antibiotic prophylaxis in the surgical treatment of peritrochanteric fractures: a comparative trial between two cephalosporins. Single- versus multiple-dose antimicrobial prophylaxis for major surgery: a systematic review. A randomized prospective study in patients undergoing elective arthroplasty is underway, which should help answer this question definitively. During the early years of arthroplasty, prophylactic antibiotics for a few days postoperatively was routine. The recommendation by these organizations is in an antibiotic stewardship practice intended to limit liberal use of antibiotics that can result in the emergence of antimicrobial resistance and also expose patients to adverse effects associated with administration of prolonged antibiotics [2,4,5]. They concluded that postoperative antibiotics did not have additional benefits in reducing the rate of infections. Furthermore, studies are usually underpowered with one randomized trial enrolling only 196 patients when comparing a single dose of cefuroxime to 24 hours of prophylaxis [10]. Postoperative antibiotic prophylaxis in total hip and knee arthroplasty: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Efficacy of teicoplanin for the prevention of surgical site infections after total hip or knee arthroplasty: a prospective, open-label study. Teicoplanin versus cefamandole in the prevention of infection in total hip replacement. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis in total joint arthroplasty: a single-dose is as effective as multiple-doses. Complications following outpatient total joint arthroplasty: an analysis of a national database. Can total knee arthroplasty be performed safely as an outpatient in the medicare population When comparing infection rates between outpatient and inpatient total joint arthroplasty, the majority of the literature demonstrates no difference in the rate of postoperative infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guideline for the Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 2017. A comprehensive literature search was performed to identify studies evaluating the potential role of extended antibiotic prophylactic therapy following aseptic revision arthroplasty. Several criteria concerning inflammatory markers, imaging and synovial fluid analysis were performed to Section 1 rule out infection prior to revision surgery. These data suggest that there might be a protective effect of prolonging antibiotic prophylaxis. However, although no other protocol modifications were made during the study period according to the authors, bias cannot be completely ruled out due to the retrospective nature of the study, especially as diagnostic methods to rule out an infection prior to revision surgery have been improved over recent years. Thus, there is a need for a randomized controlled trial that can examine this question. Dislocation and infection after revision total hip arthroplasty: comparison between the first and multiply revised total hip arthroplasty. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guideline for the prevention of surgical site infection. Antibiotic prophylaxis in orthopaedic surgery: difficult decisions in an era of evolving antibiotic resistance. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgery: an advisory statement from the National Surgical Infection Prevention Project. Antibiotic prophylaxis for total joint replacement surgery: results of a survey of Canadian orthopedic surgeons. A prolonged post-operative antibiotic regimen reduced the rate of prosthetic joint infection after aseptic revision knee arthroplasty. Murray [1] described for the first time the risk of metachronous infections in multiple joints due to hematogenous spread. Metachronous infections in patients who have had more than one total joint arthroplasty. A History of treated periprosthetic joint infection increases the risk of subsequent different site infection. The infecting organism for the second joint is most of the time same as the first infecting organism. These patients may require administration of an alternative or additional antibiotic(s). All titles were screened and abstracts of putative relevance reviewed and none were found to be relevant. Should they be undertaken, their external validity would for the above-mentioned reasons be questionable. There is currently insufficient evidence to recommend its use in settings with high levels of antibiotic resistance [16]. American College of Surgeons and Surgical Infection Society: surgical site infection guidelines: 2016 Update. World Health Organization: global guidelines for the prevention of surgical site infection. Antimicrobial prophylaxis with ceftizoxime versus cefuroxime in orthopedic surgery. Appropriateness of twenty-four-hour antibiotic prophylaxis after spinal surgery in which a drain is utilized: a prospective randomized study. Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections: a risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients. Rapid emergence of resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci on the skin after antibiotic prophylaxis. Prophylactic antibiotics adversely affect nosocomial pneumonia in trauma patients. Allografts are avascular materials that are prone to contamination and may serve as a scaffold for bacterial colonization and biofilm production, similar to a prosthesis or osteosynthetic material. However, it is difficult to establish a causal relationship between the use of an allograft and subsequent infection. By virtue of their operative history, these patients are already associated with a higher risk of infections (2 to 3 times) [1] compared to primary total joint arthroplasty patients. Allografts are avascular materials that, similar to a prosthesis or osteosynthetic material, are prone to contamination and may serve as a scaffold for bacterial colonization and biofilm production. The question of whether the antibiotic prophylaxis in such complex cases should be altered is a separate discussion from treating infections arising from undetected contamination of the allograft. There are no high-quality studies available comparing differences between the duration of systemic antibiotic prophylaxis with and without allograft use in primary or revision total joint arthroplasty. Allograft bone may be utilized in different forms including untreated or processed, gamma-irradiated, chemically sterilized, and as fresh frozen product. A contamination rate of up to 23% immediately after aseptic procurement of unprocessed and unsterilized allograft has been reported [3]. Alternatively, sterilization reduces bacterial contamination rates approaching 0% after multiple decontamination processes [4]. An efficient "prophylaxis" may only be expected after using processed or sterilized allografts [5], perhaps by conferring additional local antimicrobial protection [6]. High quality studies evaluating the optimal duration of prophylactic antibiotics during allograft reconstructive procedures are warranted. Antibiotics and antiseptics for preventing infection in people receiving revision total hip and knee prostheses: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Extensor mechanism allograft reconstruction for extensor mechanism failure following total knee arthroplasty. Proximal femoral allograft in revision hip surgery with severe femoral bone loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Evaluation of allograft contamination and decontamination at the Treviso Tissue Bank Foundation: a retrospective study of 11,129 tissues.
Sometimes the efforts have obvious benefits diabetic diet juice buy 500mg glycomet with mastercard, even for those who worry about cultural colonialism diabetes type 2 diet sheet discount glycomet 500mg otc, such as campaigns to bring cleanwater technology to rural areas that do not have access to safe drinking water diabetic diet cheap 500mg glycomet fast delivery. The agreement is among the countries of North America managing diabetes during illness 500mg glycomet with visa, including Canada managing diabetes 02190 generic 500 mg glycomet amex, the United States diabete x quiabo order glycomet 500 mg, and Mexico and allows much freer trade opportunities without the kind of tariffs (taxes) and import laws that restrict international trade. Often, trade opportunities are misrepresented by politicians and economists, who sometimes offer them up as a panacea to economic woes. This is because while easier, more lax export laws mean there is the potential for job growth in the United States, imports can mean the exact opposite. As the United States import more goods from outside the country, jobs typically decrease, as more and more products are made overseas. There are several forces driving globalization, including the global economy and multinational corporations that control assets, sales, production, and employment (United Nations 1973). Characteristics of multinational corporations include the following: A large share of their capital is collected from a variety of different nations, their business is conducted without regard to national borders, they concentrate wealth in the hands of core nations and already wealthy individuals, and they play a key role in the global economy. We see the emergence of global assembly lines, where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions. For instance, Apple designs its next-generation Mac prototype in the United States, components are made in various peripheral nations, they are then shipped to another peripheral nation such as Malaysia for assembly, and tech support is outsourced to India. Globalization has also led to the development of global commodity chains, where internationally integrated economic links connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing (Plahe 2005). For example, in maquiladoras, mostly found in northern Mexico, workers may sew imported precut pieces of fabric into garments. Globalization also brings an international division of labor, in which comparatively wealthy workers from core nations compete with the low-wage labor pool of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. This can lead to a sense of xenophobia, which is an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods. Corporations trying to maximize their profits in the United States are conscious of this risk and attempt to "Americanize" their products, selling shirts printed with U. Societies in ancient Greece and Rome traded with other societies in Africa, the Middle East, India, and China. Trade expanded further during the Islamic Golden Age and after the rise of the Mongol Empire. The establishment of colonial empires after the voyages of discovery by European countries meant that trade was going on all over the world. In the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution led to even more trade of ever-increasing amounts of goods. One way to look at the similarities and differences that exist among the economies of different nations is to compare their standards of living. Some of the benefits include the exponentially accelerated progress of development, the creation of international awareness and empowerment, and the potential for increased wealth (Abedian 2002). However, experience has shown that countries can also be weakened by globalization. Some critics of globalization worry about the growing influence of enormous international financial and industrial corporations that benefit the most from free trade and unrestricted markets. They fear these corporations can use their vast wealth and resources to control governments to act in their interest rather than that of the local population (Bakan 2004). Indeed, when looking at the countries at the bottom of the list above, we are looking at places where the primary benefactors of mineral exploitation are major corporations and a few key political figures. Other critics oppose globalization for what they see as negative impacts on the environment and local economies. Rapid industrialization, often a key component of globalization, can lead to widespread economic damage due to the lack of regulatory environment (Speth 2003). Further, as there are often no social institutions in place to protect workers in countries where jobs are scarce, some critics state that globalization leads to weak labor movements (Boswell and Stevis 1997). Finally, critics are concerned that wealthy countries can force economically weaker nations to open their markets while protecting their own local products from competition (Wallerstein 1974). This can be particularly true of agricultural products, which are often one of the main exports of poor and developing countries (Koroma 2007). These countries typically lack the infrastructure to be flexible and nimble in their production and trade, and therefore are vulnerable to everything from unfavorable weather conditions to international price volatility. The increasing use of outsourcing of manufacturing and service-industry jobs to developing countries has caused increased unemployment in some developed countries. Countries that do not develop new jobs to replace those that move, and train their labor force to do them, will find support for globalization weakening. There is a great deal of mythologizing about the energetic upstart who can climb to success based on hard work alone. And although the reality has always been more complex than suggested by the myth, the worldwide recession that began in 2008 took its toll on the American Dream. Today, while the recovery is still incomplete, many sectors of the economy are hiring, and unemployment rates have receded. Making Connections: Sociology in the Real World Real Money, Virtual Worlds Figure 18. According to an article in Forbes magazine, the online world of gaming has been yielding very real profits for entrepreneurs who are able to buy, sell, and manage online real estate, currency, and more for cash (Holland and Ewalt 2006). If it seems strange that people would pay real money for imaginary goods, consider that for serious gamers the online world is of equal importance to the real one. One of the easiest ways to make such a living is called gold farming, which involves hours of repetitive and boring play, hunting, and shooting animals like dragons that carry a lot of wealth. Players in parts of Asia engage in gold farming and play eight hours a day or more to sell their gold to players in Western Europe or North America. From virtual prostitutes to power levelers (people who play the game logged in as you so your characters get the wealth and power), to architects, merchants, and even beggars, online players can offer to sell any service or product that others want to buy. Whether buying a magic carpet in World of Warcraft or a stainless-steel kitchen appliance in Second Life, gamers have the same desire to acquire as the rest of us-never mind that their items are virtual. Once a gamer creates the code for an item, she can sell it again and again for real money. According to Forbes, a University of Virginia computer science student sold his World of Warcraft character on eBay for $1,200, due to the high levels of powers and skills it had gained (Holland and Ewalt 2006). Still, for some, it offers the ultimate in work-from-home flexibility, even if that home is a mountain cave in a virtual world. Polarization in the Workforce the mix of jobs available in the United States began changing many years before the recession struck, and, as mentioned above, the American Dream has not always been easy to achieve. Geography, race, gender, and other factors have always played a role in the reality of success. More recently, the increased outsourcing-or contracting a job or set of jobs to an outside source-of manufacturing jobs to developing nations has greatly diminished the number of high-paying, often unionized, blue-collar positions available. A similar problem has arisen in the white-collar sector, with many low-level clerical and support positions also being outsourced, as evidenced by the international technical-support call centers in Mumbai, India, and Newfoundland, Canada. The number of supervisory and managerial positions has been reduced as companies streamline their command structures and industries continue to consolidate through mergers. Even highly educated skilled workers such as computer programmers have seen their jobs vanish overseas. The automation of the workplace, which replaces workers with technology, is another cause of the changes in the job market. Computers can be programmed to do many routine tasks faster and less expensively than people who used to do such tasks. Jobs like bookkeeping, clerical work, and repetitive tasks on production assembly lines all lend themselves to automation. Now one cashier can oversee transactions at six or more self-scan aisles, which was a job that used to require one cashier per aisle. Despite the ongoing economic recovery, the job market is actually growing in some areas, but in a very polarized fashion. Polarization means that a gap has developed in the job market, with most employment opportunities at the lowest and highest levels and few jobs for those with midlevel skills and education. At one end, there has been strong demand for low-skilled, low-paying jobs in industries like food service and retail. On the other end, some research shows that in certain fields there has been a steadily increasing demand for highly skilled and educated professionals, technologists, and managers. The fact that some positions are highly paid while others are not is an example of the class system, an economic hierarchy in which movement (both upward and downward) between various rungs of the socioeconomic ladder is possible. A theorist working in the functionalist perspective might point out that this system is designed to reward hard work, which encourages people to strive for excellence in pursuit of reward. If you lack knowledge of how to leverage the right names, connections, and players, you are unlikely to experience upward mobility. While fishing and forestry jobs are in decline, in several markets jobs are increasing. These include community and social service, personal care and service, finance, computer and information services, and healthcare. Service jobs, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, can include everything from jobs with the fire department to jobs scooping ice cream (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2010). There is a wide variety of training needed, and therefore an equally large wage potential discrepancy. One of the largest areas of growth by industry, rather than by occupational group (as seen above), is in the health field. This is an area where those with less education traditionally could be assured of finding steady, if low-wage, work. With these jobs disappearing, more and more workers will find themselves untrained for the types of employment that are available. Another projected trend in employment relates to the level of education and training required to gain and keep a job. As the chart below shows us, growth rates are higher for those with more education. At the other end of the spectrum, jobs that require a high school diploma or equivalent are projected to grow at only 12 percent, while jobs that require less than a high school diploma will grow 14 percent. It is worth noting that these projections are based on overall growth across all occupation categories, so obviously there will be variations within different occupational areas. However, once again, those who are the least educated will be the ones least able to fulfill the American Dream. Department of Labor) In the past, rising education levels in the United States had been able to keep pace with the rise in the number of education-dependent jobs. However, since the late 1970s, men have been enrolling in college at a lower rate than women, and graduating at a rate of almost 10 percent less. The lack of male candidates reaching the education levels needed for skilled positions has opened opportunities for women, minorities, and immigrants (Wang 2011). Women in the Workforce Women have been entering the workforce in ever-increasing numbers for several decades. They have also been finishing college and going on to earn higher degrees at higher rate than men do. This has resulted in many women being better positioned to obtain high-paying, high-skill jobs (Autor 2010). Census statistics show that they are still earning only 77 percent of what men are for the same positions (U. Immigration and the Workforce Simply put, people will move from where there are few or no jobs to places where there are jobs, unless something prevents them from doing so. Due to its reputation as the land of opportunity, the United States has long been the destination of all skill levels of workers. While the rate decreased somewhat during the economic slowdown of 2008, immigrants, both legal and illegal, continue to be a major part of the U. During the 1970s through 2000s, the United States experienced both an increase in college-educated immigrants and in immigrants who lacked a high school diploma. With this range across the spectrum, immigrants are well positioned for both the higher-paid jobs and the low-wage low-skill jobs that are predicted to grow in the next decade (Lowell et al. In the early 2000s, it certainly seemed that the United States was continuing to live up to its reputation of opportunity. But what about during the recession of 2008, when so many jobs were lost and unemployment hovered close to 10 percent As these numbers suggest, the unemployment rate that year decreased for immigrant workers and increased for native workers. Some Pew research suggests immigrants tend to have greater flexibility to move from job to job and that the immigrant population may have been early victims of the recession, and thus were quicker to rebound (Kochhar 2010). Regardless of the reasons, the 2009 job gains are far from enough to this OpenStax book is available for free at cnx. Immigrant earnings are in decline, even as the number of jobs increases, and some theorize that increase in employment may come from a willingness to accept significantly lower wages and benefits. Many immigrants are sponsored by their employers who claim they possess talents, education, and training that are in short supply in the U. These sponsored immigrants account for 15 percent of all legal immigrants (Batalova and Terrazas 2010). On the other hand, illegal immigrants tend to be trapped in extremely low-paying jobs in agriculture, service, and construction with few ways to improve their situation without risking exposure and deportation.
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From our earliest family and play experiences, we are made aware of societal values and expectations. They were there to look into a statement from the neighbor concerning a shabby house on Old Sydney Road. This seemed odd because no one in the neighborhood had seen a young child in or around the home, which had been inhabited for the past three years by a woman, her boyfriend, and two adult sons. Through extensive testing, doctors determined that, although she was severely malnourished, Danielle was able to see, hear, and vocalize normally. Based on their investigation, social workers concluded that she had been left almost entirely alone in rooms like the one where she was found. Without regular interaction-the holding, hugging, talking, the explanations and demonstrations given to most young children-she had not learned to walk or to speak, to eat or to interact, to play or even to understand the world around her. Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. Socialization is not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like family, friends, and coworkers); to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing. You may be surprised to know that even physical tasks like sitting, standing, and walking had not automatically developed for Danielle as she grew. From 1957 to 1963, the Harlows conducted a series of experiments studying how rhesus monkeys, which behave a lot like people, are affected by isolation as babies. They studied monkeys raised under two types of "substitute" mothering circumstances: a mesh and wire sculpture, or a soft terrycloth "mother. This demonstrated that while food was important, social comfort was of greater value (Harlow and Harlow 1962; Harlow 1971). Later experiments testing more severe isolation revealed that such deprivation of social contact led to significant developmental and social challenges later in life. We will explore how socialization is not only critical to children as they develop but how it is also a lifelong process through which we become prepared for new social environments and expectations in every stage of our lives. But first, we will turn to scholarship about self-development, the process of coming to recognize a sense of self, a "self" that is then able to be socialized. Many scholars, both in the fields of psychology and in sociology, have described the process of self-development as a precursor to understanding how that "self" becomes socialized. He believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he divided the maturation process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. According to Freud, failure to properly engage in or disengage from a specific stage results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood. An anal fixation may produce a neat freak (hence the term "anal retentive"), while a person stuck in the phallic stage may be promiscuous or emotionally immature. You might be wondering: if sociologists and psychologists are both interested in people and their behavior, how are these two disciplines different The answers are complicated, but the distinction is important to scholars in both fields. As a general difference, we might say that while both disciplines are interested in human behavior, psychologists are focused on how the mind influences that behavior, while sociologists study the role of society in shaping behavior. Another way to think of the difference is that psychologists tend to look inward (mental health, emotional processes), while sociologists tend to look outward (social institutions, cultural norms, interactions with others) to understand human behavior. For example, a sociologist studying how a couple gets to the point of their first kiss on a date might focus her research on cultural norms for dating, social patterns of sexual activity over time, or how this process is different for seniors than for teens. In recent decades, however, their fields have become more clearly separated as sociologists increasingly focus on large societal issues and patterns, while psychologists remain honed in on the human mind. Both disciplines make valuable contributions through different approaches that provide us with different types of useful insights. However, Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death. All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern understanding of self-development. In order to engage in this process of "self," an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the "other. During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their mothers and fathers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children begin to take on the role that one other person might have. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes). Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others-and thus, from a sociological perspective, to have a "self" (Mead 1934; Mead 1964). The term refers to the way people learn what society considered to be "good" and "bad," which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and good for others. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. In the preconventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience the world around them only through their senses. At this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government corruption, they were using postconventional morality. They understood that although their government was legal, it was not morally correct. Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research To answer the first question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was "better": the two norms of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990). Bloom asserts that we are too focused on the appearance of young girls, and as a result, our society is socializing them to believe that how they look is of vital importance. How often do you tell a little boy how attractive his outfit is, how nice looking his shoes are, or how handsome he looks today To support her assertions, Bloom cites, as one example, that about 50 percent of girls ages three to six worry about being fat (Bloom 2011). Sociologists are acutely interested in of this type of gender socialization, by which societal expectations of how boys and girls should be-how they should behave, what toys and colors they should like, and how important their attire is-are reinforced. All the children at Egalia are referred to with neutral terms like "friend" instead of "he" or "she. Bloom suggests that we start with simple steps: when introduced to a young girl, ask about her favorite book or what she likes. It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. Whatever is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive. The manners and customs of different cultures (When can you use your hands to eat Social interaction provides the means via which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, and how we learn who we are and how we fit into the world around us. Nature versus Nurture Some experts assert that who we are is a result of nurture-the relationships and caring that surround us. According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before birth. The pairs shared the same genetics but in some cases were socialized in different ways. Instances of this type of situation are rare, but studying the degree to which identical twins raised apart are the same and different can give researchers insight into the way our temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus our social environment. The adoptive parents, and certainly the babies, did not realize the girls were one of five pairs of twins who were made subjects of a scientific study (Flam 2007). Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein sat together in awe, feeling like they were looking into a mirror. Not only did they look alike but they also behaved alike, using the same hand gestures and facial expressions (Spratling 2007). All these factors affected the lives of the twins as much as their genetic makeup and are critical to consider as we look at life through the sociological lens. Chris Langan spent the majority of his adult life just getting by with jobs like these. He had no college degree, few resources, and a past filled with much disappointment. Gladwell looked to a recent study conducted by sociologist Annette Lareau in which she closely shadowed 12 families from various economic backgrounds and examined their parenting techniques. These parents were more likely to engage in analytical conversation, encourage active questioning of the establishment, and foster development of negotiation skills. The parents were also able to introduce their children to a wide range of activities, from sports to music to accelerated academic programs. When one middle-class child was denied entry to a gifted and talented program, the mother petitioned the school and arranged additional testing until her daughter was admitted. Lower-income parents, however, were more likely to unquestioningly obey authorities such as school boards. Their children were not being socialized to comfortably confront the system and speak up (Gladwell 2008). What does this have to do with Chris Langan, deemed by some the smartest man in the world (Brabham 2001) Chris was born in severe poverty, moving across the country with an abusive and alcoholic stepfather. After accepting a full scholarship to Reed College, he lost his funding after his mother failed to fill out necessary paperwork. What Chris had in brilliance, he lacked in practical intelligence, or what psychologist Robert Sternberg defines as "knowing what to say to whom, knowing when to say it, and knowing how to say it for maximum effect" (Sternberg et al. Chris gave up on school and began working an array of blue-collar jobs, pursuing his intellectual interests on the side. Flam/flickr) Sociologists all recognize the importance of socialization for healthy individual and societal development. But how do scholars working in the three major theoretical paradigms approach this topic Structural functionalists would say that socialization is essential to society, both because it trains members to operate successfully within it and because it perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations. A conflict theorist might argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by conveying different expectations and norms to those with different social characteristics. For example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, social class, and race.
However diabetes medications in renal insufficiency cheap 500 mg glycomet otc, in the long-term care setting diabetes mellitus basics ppt purchase glycomet 500mg with visa, she was much quieter about her sexual orientation diabetes mellitus may be caused by a deficiency in this hormone generic 500 mg glycomet. She "selectively disclosed" her sexual identity diabetes mellitus with hypoglycemic coma code generic glycomet 500mg mastercard, feeling safer with anonymity and silence (Jenkins et al diabetes type 2 google scholar generic glycomet 500mg overnight delivery. With marriage comes the legal and financial protection afforded to opposite-sex couples diabetes etymology cheap 500 mg glycomet, as well as less fear of exposure and a reduction in the need to "retreat to the closet" (Jenkins et al. Humans struggled to survive with few amenities and very limited medical technology. The risk of death due to disease or accident was high in any life stage, and life expectancy was low. For many teenagers and young adults, losing a grandparent or another older relative can be the first loss of a loved one they experience. It may be their first encounter with grief, a psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event. People tend to perceive death, their own and that of others, based on the values of their culture. While some may look upon death as the natural conclusion to a long, fruitful life, others may find the prospect of dying frightening to contemplate. People tend to have strong resistance to the idea of their own death, and strong emotional reactions of loss to the death of loved ones. Viewing death as a loss, as opposed to a natural or tranquil transition, is often considered normal in the United States. What may be surprising is how few studies were conducted on death and dying prior to the 1960s. She observed that the process had five distinct stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. A person then resorts to the third stage, bargaining: trying to negotiate with a higher power to postpone the inevitable by reforming or changing the way he or she lives. The fourth stage, psychological depression, allows for resignation as the situation begins to seem hopeless. At this point, the person can face death honestly, by regarding it as a natural and inevitable part of life and can make the most of their remaining time. It broke new ground and opened the doors for sociologists, social workers, health practitioners, and therapists to study death and help those who were facing death. In some cases, people may not want to continue living when they are in constant pain and no longer enjoying life. In the United States, Oregon was the first state to pass a law allowing physicianassisted suicides. In 1997, Oregon instituted the Death with Dignity Act, which required the presence of two physicians for a legal assisted suicide. Attorney General John Ashcroft in 2001, but the appeals process ultimately upheld the Oregon law. Health institutions have built facilities to comfortably house those who are terminally ill. This is seen as a compassionate act, helping relieve the surviving family members of the burden of caring for the dying relative. But studies almost universally show that people prefer to die in their own homes (Lloyd, White, and Sutton 2011). Is it our social responsibility to care for elderly relatives up until their death How do we balance the responsibility for caring for an elderly relative with our other responsibilities and obligations As our society grows older, and as new medical technology can prolong life even further, the answers to these questions will develop and change. Hospice is a type of healthcare that treats terminally ill people when "cure-oriented treatments" are no longer an option (Hospice Foundation of America 2012b). Hospice doctors, nurses, and therapists receive special training in the care of the dying. The focus is not on getting better or curing the illness, but on passing out of this life in comfort and peace. Hospice centers exist as a place where people can go to die in comfort, and increasingly, hospice services encourage at-home care so that someone has the comfort of dying in a familiar environment, surrounded by family (Hospice Foundation of America 2012a). While many of us would probably prefer to avoid thinking of the end of our lives, it may be possible to take comfort in the idea that when we do approach death in a hospice setting, it is in a familiar, relatively controlled place. The loss of independence is one potential part of the process, as are diminished physical ability and age discrimination. The term senescence refers to the aging process, including biological, emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual changes. And due to cultural misconceptions, older people can be targets of ridicule and stereotypes. The elderly face many challenges in later life, but they do not have to enter old age without dignity. Some who had planned a leisurely retirement have found themselves at risk of late-age destitution. At the start of the twenty-first century, the older population was putting an end to that trend. Among people over sixty-five years old, the poverty rate fell from 30 percent in 1967 to 9. However, given the subsequent recession, which severely reduced the retirement savings of many while taxing public support systems, how are the elderly affected According to the Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, the national poverty rate among the elderly had risen to 14 percent by 2010 (Urban Institute and Kaiser Commission 2010). Before the recession hit, what had changed to cause a reduction in poverty among the elderly More married couples 288 Chapter 13 Aging and the Elderly earned double incomes during their working years and saved more money for their retirement. By 1990, senior citizens reported earning 36 percent more income on average than they did in 1980; that was five times the rate of increase for people under age thirty-five (U. New trends encouraged people to live more healthful lifestyles by placing an emphasis on exercise and nutrition. There was also greater access to information about the health risks of behaviors such as cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and drug use. Because they were healthier, many older people continue to work past the typical retirement age and provide more opportunity to save for retirement. In the meantime, they are realizing the immediate impact of the recession on elderly poverty. From October 2007 to October 2009 the values of retirement accounts for people over age fifty lost 18 percent of their value. The sharp decline in the stock market also forced many to delay their retirement (Administration on Aging 2009). The speed limit was thirty-five miles per hour, and while most drivers sped along at forty to fortyfive mph, the driver in front of him was going the minimum speed. She paid for her groceries, lifted her bags of food into her cart, and toddled toward the exit. Peter, guessing her to be about eighty years old, was reminded of his grandmother. He assumed the driver drove cautiously simply because the man was a senior citizen, and he assumed the shopper needed help carrying her groceries just because she was an older woman. Robert Butler coined the term in 1968, noting that ageism exists in all cultures (Brownell). Ageist attitudes and biases based on stereotypes reduce elderly people to inferior or limited positions. When ageism is reflected in the workplace, in healthcare, and in assisted-living facilities, the effects of discrimination can be more severe. Ageism can make older people fear losing a job, feel dismissed by a doctor, or feel a lack of power and control in their daily living situations. In some countries today, the elderly still have influence and power and their vast knowledge is respected. Reverence for the elderly is still a part of some cultures, but it has changed in many places because of social factors. In many modern nations, however, industrialization contributed to the diminished social standing of the elderly. Some older members of the workforce felt threatened by this trend and grew concerned that younger employees in higher level positions would push them out of the job market. Rapid advancements in technology and media have required new skill sets that older members of the workforce are less likely to have. The oldest members of the family contributed to the household by doing chores, cooking, and helping with child care. As economies shifted from agrarian to industrial, younger generations moved to cities to work in factories. What began during industrialization, a trend toward older people living apart from their grown children, has become commonplace. Mistreatment and Abuse Mistreatment and abuse of the elderly is a major social problem. As expected, with the biology of aging, the elderly sometimes become physically frail. This frailty renders them dependent on others for care-sometimes for small needs like household tasks, and sometimes for assistance with basic functions like eating and toileting. Unlike a child, who also is dependent on another for care, an elder is an adult with a lifetime of experience, knowledge, and opinions-a more fully developed person. Elder abuse occurs when a caretaker intentionally deprives an older person of care or harms the person in his or her charge. Caregivers may be family members, relatives, friends, health professionals, or employees of senior housing or nursing care. Ron Acierno, the team of researchers identified five major categories of elder abuse: 1) physical abuse, such as hitting or shaking, 2) sexual abuse, including rape and coerced nudity, 3) psychological or emotional abuse, such as verbal harassment or humiliation, 4) neglect or failure to provide adequate care, and 5) financial abuse or exploitation (Acierno 2010). Administration on Aging, also identifies abandonment and self-neglect as types of abuse. Some social researchers believe elder abuse is underreported and that the number may be higher. The risk of abuse also increases in people with health issues such as dementia (Kohn and Verhoek-Oftedahl 2011). Older women were found to be victims of verbal abuse more often than their male counterparts. Other studies have focused on the caregivers to the elderly in an attempt to discover the causes of elder abuse. Researchers identified factors that increased the likelihood of caregivers perpetrating abuse against those in their care. A history of depression in the caregiver was also found to increase the likelihood of elder abuse. Many of the caregivers who physically abused elders were themselves abused-in many cases, when they were children. Family members with some sort of dependency on the elder in their care were more likely to physically abuse that elder. For example, an adult child caring for an elderly parent while at the same time depending on some form of income from that parent, is considered more likely to perpetrate physical abuse (Kohn and Verhoek-Oftedahl 2011). Paid caregivers in nursing homes were at a high risk of becoming abusive if they had low job satisfaction, treated the elderly like children, or felt burnt out (Kohn and Verhoek-Oftedahl 2011). Caregivers who tended to be verbally abusive were found to have had less training, lower education, and higher likelihood of depression or other psychiatric disorders. Based on the results of these studies, many housing facilities for seniors have increased their screening procedures for caregiver applicants. Most of these men and women were in their late teens or twenties when they served. Veterans Administration (National Center for Veterans Analysis and Statistics 2011). These heroes did not receive the mental and physical healthcare that could have helped them. Research has found that veterans of any conflict are more than twice as likely as nonveterans to commit suicide, with rates highest among the oldest veterans. Unfortunately, many were in their eighties and were neither physically nor financially able to travel on their own. Morse arranged to personally escort some of the veterans and enlisted volunteer pilots who would pay for the flights themselves. The round-trip flights leave for day-long trips from airports in thirty states, staffed by volunteers who care for the needs of the elderly travelers (Honor Flight Network 2011). Sociologists are interested in exploring the answers to questions such as these through three different perspectives: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory. Functionalists find that people with better resources who stay active in other roles adjust better to old age (Crosnoe and Elder 2002). Three social theories within the functional perspective were developed to explain how older people might deal with later-life experiences. First, because everyone expects to die one day, and because we experience physical and mental decline as we approach death, it is natural to withdraw from individuals and society. Second, as the elderly withdraw, they receive less reinforcement to conform to social norms.
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