Henry F. Duncan BDS, MClinDent, MRD RCS (Edin), FDS RCS (Edin)

• Lecturer/Consultant in Endodontics,
• Dublin Dental School & Hospital, Trinity College Dublin,
• Dublin, Ireland

Observations of gamma-ray bursts of cosmic origin - Ray W Klebesadel breast cancer patient protection act order estrace 1 mg amex, Ian B Strong menstrual cramps icd 9 discount estrace 2 mg amex, Roy A Olson: the Astrophysical Journal 182 women's health center voorhees trusted 2mg estrace, L85 womens health ventura generic estrace 2 mg, 1973 3 menopause leg cramps discount estrace 2 mg with visa. Gamma-ray bursts - Peter Meszaros: Reports on Progress in Physics 69 (8) women's health center centrastate cheap estrace 2 mg line, 2259, 2006 4. A condition in which an individual has two different eye colours, one in each eye. A condition in which the heart is found on the right side and was highlighted in `Shajarur Kanta, a famous Byomkesh Bakshi fiction. A bird which is capable of turning their heads almost 360° but cannot move its eyes. A hormone of the female body that is not only important for health, but also burns fat. A famous scientist who never wore a pair of socks because he said, "Socks are a pain because they often would get holes in them. An abnormally short chromosome 22 that is one of the two chromosomes involved in a translocation with chromosome 9, resulting in chronic myeloid leukemia. A part of human eye which is the personification of the rainbow in Greek mythology. The name of one offspring of Dolly, the first transgenic sheep, whose name is similar to a poem of William Wordsworth. A species of plants that is poisonous but can be used for treating whooping cough. A fish that is most difficult to catch because its speed is similar to that of cheetah. A disease which when first surfaced, the English called it French disease, the French called it Spanish disease, the Russians called it Polish disease, the Poles called it Turkish disease, the Turks called it Chinese disease and the Japanese called it Chinese pox. Page 89 InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments magazine Across 3. A force which always acts on the body towards the center of the circular path during circular motion. Satellites used for communication purpose, for weather forecasting, in studying the upper region of the atmosphere and in mapping. The phenomenon of restricting of electric vectors of light into a single direction. Prolonged dormancy of an organism in response to high temperature and arid conditions. The phenomenon in which the rate of reaction is altered by the presence of a substance. An interaction in which two organisms benefit without affecting the other species. Substances which are feebly magnetized in the opposite direction of magnetic field when placed in strong magnetic field. A device consisting of three plane rectangular mirrors of equal lengths and breadths inclined at an angle of 60 enclosed in a cylindrical tube. The bond which is formed by one sided sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms. Used to measure the depth of a sea, to locate the enemy submarines and shipwrecks. The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers and different mass numbers but having same number of neutrons. Plants which have thick waxy cuticle and leaves modified into thorns to reduce transpiration rate. Subatomic particles which may be either elementary like photons or composite like mesons. The form of hydrogen in which the nuclei of the atoms of the molecular hydrogen revolve in the same direction. A pale yellow crystalline solid prepared by nitrating toluene with fuming nitric acid and fuming sulphuric acid mixture. The type of flagellar arrangement in which group of flagella is present at one end of the bacterial cell. The distance between two nearest points in a wave which are in the same phase of vibration. The total amount of oxygen (in mg) required by microbes to decompose the organic matter present in 1L of water sample. The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross-section of a deformed body. But soon after machines were invented, people started replacing natural ways to fulfil their energy requirement with those machines which were powered with fossil fuels namely coal, oil, and natural gas. But when coal, oil, and natural gas or any form of fossil fuel is burnt for energy, a huge amount of carbon enters the atmosphere at one go. InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments Even after 200 years of application of science and technology we still stare at one big question: How can we replace the application of fossil fuels with some other environmentfriendly sustainable source of energy? The most natural yet efficient method of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is photosynthesis. Scientists are planning to mimic the working of the photosynthetic system in plants to covert the carbon dioxide to renewable source of energy through these cyborg bacteria using sunlight. Mimicking nature is a difficult task, but a worthwhile exercise, both economically and ecologically, as it could result in breakthroughs worth hundreds of billions of dollars, all while practising sustainability. In nature, the green pigment chlorophyll is key to this process of photosynthesis, helping plants to convert carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight, into oxygen and glucose. But despite the fact that it works, scientists say the process is relatively inefficient, as are the artificial systems that are available. This new approach seeks to improve that efficiency by equipping bacteria with some chemical compound that can act as solar panels. After trying out several permutations and combinations, the researchers found out that some microbes have a natural defence system for heavy metals like cadmium, mercury or lead that let them turn the metal into its sulphide. These sulphides turn up as small crystallized form of semiconductors on the surface of the bacteria. They are species of bacteria that convert sunlight and carbon dioxide to acetic acid by synthesizing their own tiny solar panels as the basis for an artificial photosynthesis system. Dr Kelsey Sakimoto developed these cyborg bacteria that actually act like living solar cells. By adding sulphur containing amino acids and cadmium to the microbe Moorella thermoacetica, it was seen that the microbe automatically grew nanoparticles on its InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments surface. Once these nanoparticles are developed, bacteria will photosynthesize food, pharmaceuticals, fuels and even plastic, all utilizing solar energy. These bacteria are already outperforming natural photosynthesis, and with more developments and usage of more appropriate kind of solar panels, the efficiencies of the bacteria are guaranteed to increase. These new bacteria produce acetic acid, essentially vinegar, using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight from the atmosphere. The efficiency of these bacteria is around 80%, which is approximately four times than that of commercially available solar panels, and more than six times the level of naturally occurring chlorophyll. According to Dr Sakimoto, these bacteria are advantageous over other similar techniques to generate bio-friendly sustainable energy from biological sources as other techniques for artificial photosynthesis require expensive solid electrodes, which are inconvenient. The cyborg bacteria approach only needs large vats of liquid to be kept out in the Sun - the bacteria are self-replicating and self-regenerating, making it potentially a low waste technology. The exemplary experiment was carried out in the lab of Dr Peidong Yang at the University of California, Berkeley. If this prototype could be applied on a large commercial scale, it would be a win-win situation for us. We could remove the excessive carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere and also produce a sustainable source of energy at the same time. Though a lot of work still needs to be done to use the idea on a commercial scale, this is still an excellent beginning. Page 93 InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments References: 1. Similarly, Atlantic Young Salmon leave the river where they are born after a few days of birth. The trigger for this migration was thought to be local climate, food availability or favourable season for mating. InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments A gene has been associated recently with the patterned migrations in genetically similar species of Warblers, Golden-winged (Vermivora chrysoptera) and Blue-winged (Vermivora cyanoptera). At first, researchers placed geolactors, a light sensor on the back of these birds to know and analyze light levels of their environment throughout a year so that they can calculate the approximate location of birds along their migration track. Genome sequencing and migration tracking were combined to study these associations. InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments Page 97 Blue-winged warblers mostly migrate to Central America. There are 2 breeding populations of golden-winged warblers: the Great Lakes population also primarily migrates to Central America, whereas the Appalachian population migrates to South America. It is critical for every living Arunima Bhattacharya Department of Biotechnology St. A small change in the chemical environment can cause dramatic effects on the cell, the tissue, the organ, the organ system, the organism, as also another organism it interacts with. The network of communication set up in the biosphere is a sensitive one, where each little branch is fragile. InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments But then, is the culmination of every such network beneficial to all the organisms involved? As long as all the nitty-gritties of this web are not deciphered, the mysteries will sustain. One such mystery is that of ammensalism ­ the interaction between two species where one Page 99 is harmed while the other remains unaffected. In a world that idolizes the virtue of being a good Samaritan, how can such a fallacy exist in Nature per se? The black walnut tree (Juglans nigra) is one such species, which is linked with another phenomenon called allelopathy, where the tree produces a toxic biochemical ­ juglone ­ that impedes the growth of a number of other plants in its vicinity. The plants under the shade of its producer risk being susceptible to juglone via root contact, leakage through the soil, falling and decaying leaves, as also rain leaches and drips from the leaves and branches. Juglone, a derivative of phenolic compounds, has the ability to fight oxidative stress, leading to resistance against various diseases and premature ageing. However, juglone also has a quinoid moiety, which risks making it a redox cycling agent, increasing the activity of the enzyme superoxide dismutase. This on one hand decreases the oxidative stress of the Page 100 organism in which it is produced, but simultaneously leads to the production of reactive oxygen species like hydrogen peroxide which, if leached through soil to a neighbouring organism, can become very harmful for the latter. The plants affected by juglone, thus, are energetically deprived, leading to loss in metabolic activity and consequent irreversible wilting. The juglone-sensitive plants include vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants and peppers, while beans, beets, carrots and corn are some of the plants that are tolerant to juglone. Page 101 But then, why has Nature devised such an interaction where the defence system of one plant threatens the survival of other non-pathogenic organisms, no matter how few they are in comparison to the juglone-tolerant species? A possible explanation may be the survival against weeds or plants that are actually harmful to more or less most bigger trees ­ which brings us to an applicative question: is juglone the next organic herbicide? The primary argument against this arises because juglone synthesis has not yet been deciphered at the genetic level. It is indeed impressive how one molecule stands at a crucial crossroad where it is not harming its producer but is bringing about fatal consequences in a neighbouring organism. This makes us wonder how many more such highly efficient signalling molecules can be waiting in the dark, yet unknown to mankind. Selecting juglone-tolerant plants Landscaping Near Black Walnut Trees Published by the Johnson County Extension Master Gardeners, a volunteer program of K-State Research and Extension, Johnson County 4. While scientists, doctors and researchers alike are hustling day and night to find an effective antidote to this deadly disease, a solid remedy is yet to see the light of the day. While the world in lodged in such a crisis, a recent paper published by Gaikwad et al. The genetic material of the virus undergoes spontaneous mutation to adapt to new environment. They prevent the binding or internalisation of viruses into the enveloped host cells. The first report stating the effectiveness of high high-molecular-weight polysaccharides in treating viral diseases appeared nearly 60 years ago. Sulfated polysaccharides can be obtained from the cell wall of certain species of marine red microalgae such as Porphyridium. The external part of its capsule dissolves in growth medium forming exopolysaccharide. These polysaccharides are made of xylose, glucose, galactose, glucuronic acid, and small amounts of arabinose, rhamnose and mannose mannose. InquiScitive Journal: An e-magazine on recent scientific developments magazine the molecular weight of the exopolysaccharide is approximately 5-7x106 Da. They are secreted along with the exopolysaccharides from algae and are mucilaginous in nature. Page 104 the sulfated polysaccharides prevent the virus from attaching to the target molecules on the cell surface. Higher the degree of sulfation, better the antiviral activity of the polysaccharides. Patients who showed early symptoms of the cold were administered with nasal spray containing carageenan. Half of the patients were given iota-carrageenan nasal spray and the other half were given placebo nasal spray. Moreover, there were more relapses in case of patients treated with the placebo nasal spray. Patients treated with carrageenan showed significantly lower viral titer than placebo treated patients. Cells pre-treated with carrageenan were protected from infection by Coronaviruses.

Diseases

• 1p36 deletion syndrome, rare (NIH)
• Gorlin Bushkell Jensen syndrome
• Hirsutism skeletal dysplasia mental retardation
• Vitiligo psychomotor retardation cleft palate facial dysmorphism
• Fetal minoxidil syndrome
• Maffucci syndrome
• Optic atrophy polyneuropathy deafness
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Presumably fsh 87 menopause 2mg estrace for sale, pulmonary infections are the result of inhalation of aerosolized bacilli menstruation kit for girls generic estrace 1mg without a prescription, most likely from the surface of contaminated water menopause weight buy estrace 1 mg cheap. Laboratory Safety and Containment Recommendations Various species of mycobacteria may be present in sputa menopause xerostomia cheap estrace 1mg online, exudates from lesions womens health quotes cheap estrace 2 mg, tissues breast cancer awareness products purchase estrace 1 mg with mastercard, and in environmental samples. Aerosols created during the manipulation of broth cultures or tissue homogenates of these organisms also pose a potential infection hazard. Natural Modes of Infection Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease of worldwide importance. Accidental parenteral inoculation and direct or indirect contact of mucous membranes with infectious clinical materials are known primary laboratory hazards. Parenteral inoculation, droplet exposure of mucous membranes, infectious aerosol and ingestion are the primary hazards to laboratory personnel. Based on the mechanism of natural infection and the risk associated with handling of isolates on an open laboratory bench, exposure to droplets or aerosols of N. Occupational Infections Salmonellosis is a documented hazard to laboratory personnel. An estimated 5 million cases of salmonellosis occur annually in the United States. A wide range of domestic and feral animals (poultry, swine, rodents, cattle, iguanas, turtles, Agent Summary Statements: Bacterial Agents 151 chicks, dogs, cats) may serve as reservoirs for this disease, as well as humans. The disease usually presents as an acute enterocolitis, with an incubation period ranging from 6 to 72 hours. Salmonella Typhi Recent taxonomic studies have organized the genus Salmonella into two species, S. Typhi is a motile gram-negative enteric bacterium that is easily cultivated on standard bacteriologic media, although enrichment and selective media may be required for isolation of this organism from clinical materials. Shiga toxin (Verocytotoxin)-producing Escherichia coli Escherichi coli is one of five species in the gram-negative genus Escherichia. Human-to-human transmission has been observed in families, day care centers, and custodial institutions. However, a variety of food specimens contaminated with the organisms including uncooked ground beef, unpasteurized dairy products and contaminated produce may present laboratory hazards. This agent may be found in blood or urine specimens from infected humans or animals. Shigella the genus Shigella is composed of nonmotile gram-negative bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. There are four subgroups that have been historically treated as separate species, even though more recent genetic analysis indicates that they are members of the same species. Most transmission is by fecal-oral route; infection also is caused by ingestion of contaminated food or water. The 50% infectious dose (oral) of Shigella for humans is only a few hundred organisms. The importance of proper gloving techniques and frequent and thorough hand washing is emphasized. Treponema pallidum Treponema pallidum is a species of extremely fastidious spirochetes that die readily upon desiccation or exposure to atmospheric levels of oxygen, and have not been cultured continuously in vitro. Venereal syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease that occurs in many areas of the world, whereas Yaws occurs in tropical areas of Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and Indonesia. Accidental parenteral inoculation, contact with mucous membranes or broken skin with infectious clinical materials are the primary hazards to laboratory personnel. Gloves should be worn when there is a likelihood Agent Summary Statements: Bacterial Agents 157 of direct skin contact with infective materials. Periodic serological monitoring should be considered in personnel regularly working with these materials. Although 12 different Vibrio species have been isolated from clinical specimens, V. The incubation period for bubonic plague ranges from two to six days while the incubation period for pneumonic plague is one to six days. Pneumonic plague is transmissible person-to-person;155 whereas bubonic plague is not. Prior to 1950, at least 10 laboratoryacquired cases were reported in the United States, four of which were fatal. Agent Summary Statements: Bacterial Agents 159 Primary pneumonic plague arises from the inhalation of infectious respiratory droplets or other airborne materials from infected animals or humans. This form of plague has a high case fatality rate if not treated and poses the risk of personto-person transmission. Primary hazards to laboratory personnel include direct contact with cultures and infectious materials from humans or animal hosts and inhalation of infectious aerosols or droplets generated during their manipulation. Laboratory and field personnel should be counseled on methods to avoid fleabites and accidental autoinoculation when handling potentially infected live or dead animals. Information on which to base assessments of risk from environments contaminated with anthrax spores. Investigation of bioterrorismrelated anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Containment of pertussis in the regional pediatric hospital during the greater Cincinnati epidemic of 1993. Evidence for a high attack rate and efficacy of erythromycin prophylaxis in a pertussis outbreak in a facility for the developmentally disabled. Serological response to filamentous hemagglutinin and lymphocytosis-promoting toxin of Bordetella pertussis. Changing epidemiology of pertussis in the United States: increasing reported incidence among adolescents and adults, 1990-1996. An outbreak of Brucella melitensis infection by airborne transmission among laboratory workers. Outbreak of Brucella melitensis among microbiology laboratory workers in a community hospital. Resistance of normal or immunized guinea pigs against a subcutaneous challenge of Brucella abortus. Ecology of Burkholderia pseudomallei and the interactions between environmental Burkholderia spp. Burkholderia pseudomallei infection in a Puerto Rican patient with chronic granulomatous disease: case report and review of occurrences in the Americas. Application of serotyping and chromosomal restriction endonuclease digest analysis in investigating a laboratory-acquired case of Campylobacter jejuni enteritis. Mediastinal and supraclavicular lymphadenitis and pneumonitis due to Chlamydia trachomatis serovars L1 and L2. Toxin production by clostridium botulinum type A under various fermentation conditions. Recommended childhood and adolescent immunization schedule-United States, January-June 2004. Unidentified curved bacilli in the stomach of patients with gastritis and peptic ulceration. Epidemiological and environmental investigations of Legionella pneumophila infection in cattle and case report of fatal pneumonia in a calf. Primary cutaneous listeriosis in adults: an occupational disease of veterinarians and farmers. Laboratory-acquired gonococcal conjunctivitis: successful treatment with single-dose ceftriaxone. Introduction of salmonellae into a centralized laboratory animal facility by infected day-old chicks. Natural Modes of Infection the fungus has been reported from multiple geographically separated countries, but is best known as a fungus endemic to North America and in association with plant material in the environment. Outbreaks associated with the exposure of people to decaying wood have been reported. Parenteral (subcutaneous) inoculation of these materials may cause local skin infection and granulomas. Occupational Infections Laboratory-associated coccidioidomycosis is a documented hazard of working with sporulating cultures of Coccidioides spp. Accidental percutaneous inoculation has typically resulted in local granuloma formation. The incubation period is one to three weeks and manifests as a community-acquired pneumonia with immunologically mediated fatigue, skin rashes, and joint pain. A small proportion of infections is complicated by hematogenous dissemination from the lungs to other organs, most frequently skin, the skeleton, and the meninges. Inhalation of arthroconidia from environmental samples or cultures of the mold form is a serious laboratory hazard. Personnel should be aware that infected animal or human clinical specimens or tissues stored or shipped in such a manner as to promote germination of arthroconidia pose a theoretical laboratory hazard. Cryptococcus Neoformans Cryptococcus neoformans is a monomorphic fungal pathogen existing in nature, in laboratory cultures at room temperature and in vivo as a budding yeast. Respiratory infections as a consequence of laboratory exposure have not been recorded. Infections are not transmissible from person-to-person, but require common exposure via the respiratory route to a point source. Bites by experimentally infected mice and manipulations of infectious environmental materials. It has been isolated from soil, often in river valleys, between latitudes 45°N and 45°S. Laboratory Safety and Containment Recommendations the infective stage of this dimorphic fungus (conidia) is present in sporulating mold form cultures and in soil from endemic areas. The yeast form in tissues or fluids from infected animals may produce local infection following parenteral inoculation or splash onto mucous membranes. Laboratory Safety and Containment Recommendations Although localized skin and eye infections have occurred in an occupational setting, no pulmonary infections have been reported as a result from laboratory exposure. It should be noted that serious disseminated infections have been reported in immunocompromised persons. Gloves should Agent Summary Statements: Fungal Agents 175 be worn during manipulation of S. The species are grouped by natural environment habitat as being primarily associated with humans (anthrophilic), other animals (zoophilic), or soil (geophilic). Infections have been acquired through contacts with naturally or experimentally infected laboratory animals (mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, etc. This fungal group encompasses members of three genera: Epidermophyton, Microsporum, and Trichophyton. The severity of infection depends on the infective species or strain, the anatomic site and other host factors. In the clinical laboratory setting, the inappropriate handling of cultures is the most common source of infection for laboratory personnel. The most common laboratory procedure for detection of the infective dermatophyte is the direct microscopic examination of contaminated skin, hair, and nails, followed by its isolation and identification on appropriated culture media. Direct contact with contaminated skin, hair, and nails of humans could be another source of infection. Miscellaneous Molds Several molds have caused serious infection in immunocompetent hosts following presumed inhalation or accidental subcutaneous inoculation from environmental sources. These agents include the dimorphic mold, Penicillium marneffei, and the dematiaceous (brown-pigmented) molds, Bipolaris species, Cladophialophora bantiana, Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis, Exserohilum species, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Ochroconis gallopava (Dactylaria gallopava), Ramichloridium mackenziei (Ramichloridium obovoideum), Rhinocladiella atrovirens, and Scedosporium prolificans. Primary cutaneous (inoculation) blastomycosis: an occupational hazard to pathologists. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis: the criteria for diagnosis and a report of a case. Experimental murine cryptococcal infection results in contamination of bedding with Cryptococcus neoformans. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and therapy of infections caused by dematiaceous fungi. Microsporidia, historically considered parasites, are now recognized by most experts to be fungi; however, microsporidia are maintained in the parasitic agent section is this edition. Other tissue protozoa of potential concern include free-living ameba (Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri) and some species of microsporidia including Encephalitozoon cuniculi that commonly cause extraintestinal infection. Trypanosoma cruzi infection could manifest initially as swelling and redness at the inoculation site, fever, rash, and adenopathy. Persons who are asplenic, immunocompromised, or elderly have increased risk for severe illness if infected. However, the prevalence of these diseases varies widely among endemic areas; the diseases can be very focal in nature. Chagas disease occurs from Mexico southward throughout most of Central and South America, with the exception of the southern-most tip of South America. African trypanosomiasis is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa but is extremely focal in its distribution. Sandflies in the genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia transmit Leishmania; mosquitoes in the genus Anopheles transmit Plasmodium; reduviid (triatomine) bugs such as Triatoma, Rhodnius, and Panstrongylus transmit T. Aerosol or droplet exposure of organisms to the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, or mouth are potential hazards when working with cultures of 184 Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories Leishmania, Toxoplasma gondii, or T. Because of the potential for grave consequences of toxoplasmosis in the developing fetus, women who are or might become pregnant and who are at risk for infection with T. Special Issues Treatment Highly effective medical treatment for most protozoal infections exists. Laboratory animal-associated infections with this group of organisms have been reported and provide a direct source of infection for laboratory personnel who are exposed to feces of experimentally or naturally infected animals. The natural mode of infection for this group of organisms is typically ingestion of an environmentally hardy oocyst (for the coccidia) or cyst (for E. Further, because these protozoa multiply in the host, ingestion of even small inocula can cause infection and illness. Ingestion of contaminated drinking or recreational water has also been a common source of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis.

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The scotomata menstruation reddit buy discount estrace 1 mg on line, the strange colors pregnancy 4-5 weeks buy estrace 1mg with visa, even the total blindness pregnancy news purchase 1 mg estrace free shipping, as explained in the preceding chapter pregnancy videos giving birth cheap estrace 2 mg free shipping, are only mental illusions breast cancer metastasis discount estrace 1 mg without a prescription. No matter how much the sight may have been impaired by sun-gazing menstrual cup buy estrace 2 mg cheap, or how long the impairment may have lasted. Some persons who have believed their eyes to have been permanently injured by the sun have been promptly cured by central fixation, indicating that their blindness had been simply functional. By persistence in looking at the sun, a person with nor- 188 Adverse Conditions a Benefit to the Eyes mal sight soon becomes able to do so without any loss of vision; but persons with imperfect sight usually find it impossible to accustom themselves to such a strong light until their vision has been improved by other means. On has to be very careful in recommending sun-gazing to persons with imperfect sight; because although no permanent harm can result from it, great temporary discomfort may be produced, with no permanent benefit. In some rare cases, however, complete cures have been effected by this means alone. In one of these cases the sensitiveness of the patient, even to ordinary daylight, was 60 great that an eminent specialist had felt justified in putting a black bandage over one eye and covering the other with a smoked glass so dark as to be nearly opaque. She was kept in this condition of almost total blindness for two years without any improvement. Other treatment extending over some months also failed to produce satisfactory results. The immediate result was total blindness, which lasted several hours; but next day the vision was not only restored to its former condition, but was improved. The sungazing was repeated, and each time the blindness lasted for a shorter period. At the end of a week the patient was able to look directly at the sun without discomfort, and her vision, which had been 20/200 without glasses and 20/70 with them, had improved to 20/10, twice the accepted standard for normal vision. Patients of this class have also been greatly benefited by focussing the rays of the sun directly upon their eyes, marked relief being often obtained in a few minutes. Like the sun, a strong electric light may also lower the vision temporarily, but never does any permanent harm. Artificial Light May be Beneficial 189 In those exceptional cases in which the patient can become accustomed to the light, it is beneficial. After looking at a strong electric light some patients have been able to read the Snellen test card better. Woman Aged 37, Child Aged 4, Both Looking Directly at Sun Without Discomfort It is not light but darkness that is dangerous to the eye. Prolonged exclusion from the light always lowers the vision, and may produce serious inflammatory conditions. Among young children living in tenements this is a somewhat frequent cause of ulcers upon the cornea, which ultimately destroy the sight. The children, finding their eyes sensitive to light, bury them in the pillows and thus shut out the light entirely. The universal fear of reading or doing fine work in a dim light is, however, unfounded. So long as the light is sufficient so that one can see without discomfort, this practice is not only harmless, but may be beneficial. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene and sanitation of the United States Bureau of Education: "The muscles of the iris are automatic in their movements, but rather slow. Sudden contrasts of strong light and weak illumination are painful and likewise harmful to the retina. For example, if the eye, adjusted to a dim light, is suddenly turned toward a brilliantly lighted object, the retina will receive too much light and will be shocked before the muscles controlling the iris can react to shut out the superabundance of light. If contrasts are not strong, but frequently made, that is, if the eye is called upon to function where frequent adjustments in this way are necessary, the muscles controlling the iris become fatigued, respond more slowly and less perfectly. As a result, eyestrain in the ciliary muscles is produced and the retina is over-stimulated. Sudden fluctuations of light undoubtedly cause discomfort to many persons, but, far from being injurious, I have found them, in all cases observed, to be actually beneficial. The pupil of the normal eye, when it has normal sight, does not change appreciably under 1 School Hygiene, Brief Course Series in Education, edited by Monroe, 190 Adverse Conditions a Benefit to the Eyes Fig. Focussing the Rays of the Sun Upon the Eye of a Patient by Means of a Burning Glass 191 192 Adverse Conditions a Benefit to the Eyes the influence of changes of illumination; and persons with normal vision are not inconvenienced by such changes. I have seen a patient look directly at the sun after coming from an imperfectly lighted room, and then, returning to the room, immediately pick up a newspaper and read it. When the eye has imperfect sight, the pupil usually contracts in the light and expands in the dark, but it has been observed to contract to the size of a pinhole in the dark. Whether the contraction takes place under the influence of light or of darkness, the cause is the same, namely, strain. Persons with imperfect sight suffer great inconvenience, resulting in lowered vision, from changes in the intensity of the light; but the lowered vision is always temporary, and if the eye is persistently exposed to these conditions, the sight is benefited. Such practices as reading alternately in a bright and a dim light, or going from a dark room to a well-lighted one, and vice versa, are to be recommended. Even such rapid and violent fluctuations of light as those involved in the production of the moving picture are, in the long run, beneficial to all eyes. I always advise patients under treatment for the cure of defective vision to go to the movies frequently and practice central fixation. They soon become accustomed to the flickering light, and afterward other light and reflections cause less annoyance. Reading is supposed to be one of the necessary evils of civilization; but it is believed that by avoiding fine print, and taking care to read only under certain favorable conditions, its deleterious influences can be minimized. Extensive investigations as to the effect of various styles of print on the eyesight of school children have been made, and detailed rules have been laid down as to the size of the print, its shading, the distance of Supposed Dangers of Reading 193 the letters from each other, the spaces between the lines, the length of the lines, etc. As regards the effects of different sorts of type on the human eye in general and those of children in particular, Dr. Young, in his much quoted report1 to the Maine State Board of Health makes the following interesting observations: Pearl. Nonpareil is used in some papers and magazines for children, but, to spare the eyes, all such should, and do, go on the list of forbidden reading matter in those homes where the danger of such print is understood. Minion is read by the healthy, normal young eye without appreciable difficulty, but even to the sound eye the danger of strain is so great that all books and magazines for children printed from it should be banished from the home and school. Brevier is much used in newspapers, but is too small for magazines or books for young folks. Bourgeois is much used in magazines, but should he used in only those school books to which a brief reference is made. Long Primer is suitable for school readers for the higher and intermediate grades, and for text books generally. Small Pica is still a more luxurious type, used in the North American Review and the Forum. Children might be bored by books in excessively small print; but I have never seen any reason for supposing that their eyes, or any other eyes, would be harmed by such type. On the contrary, the reading of fine print, when it can be done without discomfort, has invariably proven to be beneficial, and the dimmer the light in which it can be read, and the closer to the eyes it can be held, the greater the benefit. By this means severe pain in the eyes has been relieved in a few minutes or even instantly. The reason is that fine print cannot be read in a dim light and close to the eyes unless the eyes are relaxed, whereas large print can be read in a good light and at ordinary reading distance although the eyes may be under a strain. When fine print can be read under adverse conditions, the reading of ordinary print under ordinary conditions is vastly improved. In myopia it may be a benefit to strain to see fine print, because myopia is always lessened when there is a strain to see near objects, and this has sometimes counteracted the tendency to strain in looking at distant objects, which is always associated with the production of myopia. Even straining to see print so fine that it cannot be read is a benefit to some myopes. Persons who wish to preserve their eyesight are frequently warned not to read in moving vehicles; but since under modern conditions of life many persons have to spend a large part of their time in moving vehicles, and many of them have no other time to read, it is useless to expect that they will ever discontinue the practice. When the object regarded is moved more or less rapidly, strain and lowered vision are, at Benefits of Reading Fine Print Seven Truths of Normal Sight l-Normal Sight can always be demonstrated in the normal eye, but only under favorable conditions. One may even see the white part of the letters whiter than it really is, while the black is not altered by distance, illumination, size, or form, of the letters. Specimen of Diamond Type Many patients have been greatly benefited by reading type of this size. Photographic Type Reduction Patients who can read photographic type reductions are instantly relieved of pain and discomfort when they do so and those who cannot read such type may be benefited simply by looking at it. There is probably no visual habit against which we have been more persistently warned than that of reading in a recumbent posture. Many plausible reasons have been adduced for its supposed injuriousness; but so delightful is the practice that few, probably, have ever been deterred from it by fear of the consequences. It is gratifying to be able to state, therefore, that I have found these consequences to be beneficial rather than injurious. As in the case of the use of the eyes under other difficult conditions, it is a good thing to be able to read lying down, and the ability to do it improves with practice. In an upright position, with a good light coming over the left shoulder, one can read with the eyes under a considerable degree of strain; but in a recumbent posture, with the light and the angle of the page to the eye unfavorable, one cannot read unless one relaxes. Anyone who can read lying down without discomfort is not likely to have any difficulty in reading under ordinary conditions. The mind may be disturbed at first by the unfavorable environment; but after it has become accustomed to such environments, the mental control, and, consequently, the eyesight are improved. To advise against using the eyes under unfavorable conditions is like telling a person who has been in bed for a few weeks and finds it difficult to walk to refrain from such exercise. The convalescent must not at once try to run a Marathon, nor must the person with defective vision attempt, without some preparation, to outstare the Discretion Must be Used 197 sun at noonday. But just as the invalid may gradually increase his strength until the Marathon has no terrors for him, so may the eye with defective sight be educated until all the rules with which we have so long allowed ourselves to be harassed in the name of "eye hygiene" may be disregarded, not only with safety but with benefit. She was a teacher of dressmaking, and thought the children stupid because they could not tell the difference between two different shades of black. Yet she could not see a black line in a photographic copy of the Bible which was-no finer than a thread of silk, and she could not remember a black period. An employee in a cooperage factory, who had been engaged for years in picking out defective barrels as they went rapidly past him on an inclined plane, was able to continue his work 198 Idiosyncrasies of the Mind 199 after his sight for most other objects had become very defective, while persons with much better sight for the Snellen test card were unable to detect the defective barrels. The familiarity of these various objects made it possible for the subjects to look at them without strain- that is, without trying to see them. Unfamiliar objects, on the contrary, are always pessimums, as pointed out in the chapter on "The Variability of the Refraction of the Eye. It is also impossible to account for the fact that an object may be an optimum for one eye and not for the other, or an optimum at one time and at one distance and not at others. Among these unaccountable optimums one often finds a particular letter on the Snellen test card. One patient, for instance, was able to see the letter K on the forty, fifteen and ten lines, but could see none of the other letters on these lines, although most patients would see some of them, on account of the simplicity of their outlines, better than they would such a letter as K. The letter V is 50 simple in its outlines that many people can see it when they cannot see others on the same line. Yet some people are unable to distinguish it at any distance, although able to read other letters in the same word, or on the same line of the Snellen test card. Some people again will not only be unable to recognize the letter V in a word, but also to read any word that contains it, the pessimum lowering their sight not 200 Optimums and Pessimums only for itself but for other objects. A letter, for instance, may be a pessimum when located at the end or at the beginning of a line or sentence, and not in other places. When the attention of the patient is called to the fact that a letter seen in one location ought logically to be seen equally well in others, the letter often ceases to be a pessimum in any situation. An object which is a pessimum in a moderate light may not be so when the light is increased or diminished. A pessimum at twenty feet may not be one at two feet, or thirty feet, and an object which is a pessimum when directly regarded may be seen with normal vision in the eccentric field. If you can see the Snellen test card with normal vision, you can see almost anything else in the world. Patients who cannot see the letters on the Snellen test card can often see other objects of the same size and at the same distance with normal sight. When letters which are seen imperfectly, or even letters which cannot be seen at all, or which the patient is not conscious of seeing are regarded, the error of refraction is increased. The patient may regard a blank white card without any error of refraction; but if he regards the lower part of a Snellen test card, which appears to him to be just as blank as the blank card, an error of refraction can always be demonstrated, and if the visible letters of the card are covered, the result is the same. The pessimum may, in short, be letters or objects which the patient is not conscious of seeing. When the How Pessimums Become Optimums 201 card is seen in the eccentric field it may have the effect of lowering the vision for the point directly regarded. For instance, a patient may regard an area of green wallpaper at the distance, and see the color as well as at the near-point; but if a Snellen test card on which the letters are either seen imperfectly, or not seen at all, is placed in the neighborhood of the area being regarded, the retinoscope may indicate an error of refraction. When the vision improves the number of letters on the card which are pessimums diminishes and the number of optimums increases, until the whole card becomes an optimum. It is something associated with a strain to see, just as an optimum is something which has no such association. It is not caused by the error of refraction, but always produces an error of refraction; and when the strain has been relieved it ceases to be a pessimum and becomes an optimum. The relief in many cases was so striking that I investigated some thousands of cases and found it to be a fact that persons with perfect sight, or the memory of perfect sight-that is, of something perfectly seen-do not suffer pain in any part of the body, while by a strain or effort to see I have produced pain in various parts of the body. By perfect sight is not meant, necessarily, the perfect visual perception of words, letters, or objects, of a more or less complicated form. To see perfectly the color alone is sufficient, and the easiest color to see perfectly is black. But perfect sight is never continuous, careful scientific tests having shown that it is seldom maintained for more than a few minutes and usually not so long. For practical purposes in the relief of pain, therefore, the memory is more satisfactory than sight. When black is remembered perfectly a temporary, if not a permanent, relief of pain always results.

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